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METHODS 



IN: 



EDUCATION 

THOMAS J. McEVOY 



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METHODS IN EDUCATION 



BY 



THOMAS J. McEVOY 



FOUNDER OF THE McEVOY SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY FOR 
PREPARING TEACHERS FOR LICENSES TO 

TO TEACH IN NEW YORK CITY 
AUTHOR OF THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION, 

EPITOME OF HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 



CORTLAND, N. Y. 

Cortland Democrat Prompt Printery 

1908 



L 



USI^ARY of OONaRESS 

OCT 2 fi^^« 



COPYRIGHT 1908 

BY 
THOMAS J. McEVOY 



PREFACE. 

Usag-e puts a preface in every text-book and so you find one ^ 
here. But the measure of value is in the body of the text, not 
in the preface. The g-ateway is not a true criterion of the 
fruits in the field. 

The books on school methods can be easily classified. Some 
rest upon the abstract theories of psycholog^y, exalting- rigid 
formality; some present mere outlines in logical forms, leaving- 
the student to find and adapt the subject-matter; others elabo- 
rate particular methods suited to the respective subjects of 
instruction. All these are g-ood, but still the young- student 
wavers beneath the uncertainty of knowing- exactly what to do. 
Hence, this book is prepared to satisfy the actual needs of 
teachers. 

The principles of education followed here are justified by 
psychology; the subject-matter is taken from daily work in the 
class-room; the difficultly explained are from the recorded 
experience of teachers; and the paramount needs to be satis- 
fied are the needs of the child. Many lessons are complete in 
themselves so that they may be used in teaching or on exami- 
nation. These complete lessons are types which any teacher 
may safely follow. Other lessons give fully the facts to be 
presented but the details of method are left to the teacher. 
The scope of the matter does not cover the universe ; use has 
determined the limits. 

Every topic in this book is the cumulative result of contribu- 
tions from pupils, students and teachers with whom I have 
worked. Books, too, have done their share, but responses from 
human activity are a better inspiration. I hope Methods in 
Education will give to other boys and girls what my friends 

have given to me. 

T. J. M. 

306 Fulton Street, Brooklyn, September, 1908. 



Contents. 



Chapter I. Introduction. 



SECTION 

1. The purpose of education 

2. Scope of this treatise 

3. Scope of methods in education 



SECTION 

4. Meaning of pedagogics 

5. Science of education 

6. History of education 





Chapter 11. The Curriculum. 


7. 


The teacher and the course of 


13. 


The culture epoch theory in 




study 




relation to courses of study 


8. 


Principles determining course 


14. 


Correlation of studies 




of study 


15. 


Report of the Committee of Fif- 


9. 


Butler on studies 




teen on correlation of studies 


10. 


Former courses of study 


16. 


Concentration of studies 


11. 


Contrast of courses of study 


17. 


Co-ordination of studies 


12. 


Enriching the course of study 


18. 


Correlation, concentration and 
co-ordination distinguished 




Chapter III. Definitions 


in Psychology. 


19. 


Limitations 


80. 


Apperception 


20. 


Consciousness 


31. 


Sensation 


21. 


Mind 


82. 


Sense-perception 


22. 


Knowing 


88. 


Observation 


23. 


Feeling 


84. 


Memory : storing concepts 


24, 


Willing 


m. 


Imagination : buUding concepts 


25. 


Will 


86. 


Conception : holding concepts 


26. 


Faculties 


87. 


Concept 


27. 


Object, action, product of a 


88. 


Judgment : connecting concepts 




faculty 


39. 


Reasoning : deriving concepts 


28. 


Attention 


40. 


Self-activity 


29. 


Interest 


41. 


Habit 




Chapter IV. Methods in 


Mind Training. 


42. 


The plan simplified 


53. 


Characteristics of strength of 


48. 


The plan outlined. 




wiU 


44. 


The plan explained 


54 


Practical effects 


45. 


Physical basis of mind 


55. 


Causes of weak will 


46. 


Reaction in psychology 


56. 


Causes of strength of will 


47. 


Diagram for reaction 


57. 


Cultivation of will power : pre- 


48. 


Summary 




liminary processes 


49. 


The relation of psychical ele- 


58. 


Cultivation of will power : act- 




ments 




ual processes 


50. 


The training of the will 


59. 


Negative action and cultivating 


51. 


Characteristics of a weak will 




the will 


52. 


Characteristics of a stubborn 







wUl 



VI 



CONTENTS 



Chapter V. School Economy. 



SECTION 




SECTION 


60. 


Meaning 




64. 


Ventilation 


61. 


Space 




65. 


Seating 


62. 


Light 




66. 


Decoration 


63. 


Heat 




67. 


Grounds 




Chapter VI. 


School Management. 


68. 


Principles 




89. 


Social membership 


69. 


Qualifications of teachers 




90. 


Self-government 


70. 


Program 




91. 


Moral values of studies 


71. 


Opening exercises 




92. 


Contemporary civilization 


72. 


Grading 




93. 


Topics for moral lessons 


73. 


Promotion 




94. 


Principles of moral instruction 


74. 


Class teaching 




95. 


Discipline 


75. 


Group teaching 




96. 


Authority 


76. 


Individual teaching 




97. 


Co-operation of parents 


77. 


Batavia plan 




98. 


Punishment defined 


78. 


Examinations 




99. 


Kinds of punishment 


79. 


Reviews 




100. 


Incentives 


80. 


Home lessons 




101. 


Self-government of pupils 


81. 


Questioning 




102. 


Public opinion in school 


82. 


Answers 




103. 


Evils 


83. 


Moral education 




104. 


Virtues 


84. 


Personality of teacher 




105. 


Aflflliated interests 


85. 


Reverence 




106. 


Adolescence 


86. 


Self-respect 




107. 


Fatigue 


87. 


Principle in character 




108. 


Devices in management 


88. 


Spirit of school 










Chapter VII. 


Methods of Teaching. 


109. 


Definition 




122. 


Observation before reasoning; 


110. 


Classification 






processes before rules; facts 


111. 


Conversational method 






before definitions or principles 




I. From viewpoint of teacher 


123. 


From the empirical to the ra- 


113. 


Development method 






tional 


113. 


Lecture method 




124. 


Heuristic method 


114. 


Questioning method 




125. 


Prussian method 


115, 


Socratic method 




126. 


Inductive method 


116. 


Illustration of Socratic question- 


127. 


Deductive method 




ing in grammar 




128. 


The inductive-deductive method 


117. 


Illustration in mathematics 




129. 


Analytic method 


118. 


From the particular to 
general 


the 




III. From viewpoint of sub- 
ject-matter 




II. From viewpoint of pupil 


130. 


Synthetic method 


119. 


Simple to complex 




131. 


Comparison of analysis and syn- 


123. 


Concrete to abstract 






thesis 


121. 


From the known to the related 


132. 


Topical method 




unknown 




133. 


Text-l30ok method 



CONTENTS 



VII 



Chapter VIII. General Method. 



SECTION 

134. Device, method, gjeneral 

method 

135. Order of the mind 

136. Apperception aided 

137. Aim 

138. Rein on aim 

139. Preparation 

140. Presentation 

141. Comparison or association 

142. Generalization 



i 



150. 
151. 
153. 
153. 
154. 
155, 

156. 
157. 
158. 

159. 
160. 
161. 
162. 
163. 
164. 

165. 

166. 

167. 



187. 



190. 
191. 



SECTION 

143. Application or drill 

Dr. Hervey on formal steps of 

instruction 

Dr. Hervey's conclusion 
Illustrations 
Illustration in grammar grade 

reading 
Illustrative lesson on attribute 

complement 
Method-v^^hole 



144. 

145. 
146 
147. 

148. 

149. 



Chapter IX. Spelling. 



Accuracy a worthy aim 

Psychology of spelling 

The problem 

Difficulties in subject-matter 

Difficulties in the pupils 

Defective teaching; ten mis- 
takes 

What words shall pupils spell ? 

Argument for text -book 

In favor of selected lists of 
words 

Combination of book and lists 

Methods 

Advantages of oral spelling 

Disadvantages of oral spelling 

Advantages of written spelling 

Disadvantages of written spell- 
ing 

Directions for studying a spell- 
ing lesson in class 

How to learn a spelling lesson ; 
eleven ways 

Suggestions to the teacher 

Rules for spelling 



170. 
171. 
172. 
173. 

174. 



175. 
176. 
177. 
178. 
179. 

180. 
181. 

182. 
183. 
184. 

185. 



Classification of words 
How to teach synonyms 
How to teach homophones 
How to teach homonyms 
How to teach the meaning of 

words 
How pupils may show their 

knowledge of the meaning of 

words 
Means of learning pronunciation 
Uses of the dictionary 
Exercises in word-buikling 
Correlation through dictation 
"Make every lesson a spelling 

lesson" 
Pronunciation of each syllable 
Repetition in writing misspelled 

words 
Co-operation of pupils 
Grouping words by comparison 
Grouping words by contrast 
Variety in the recitation and 

reasons therefor ; ten ways. 



Chapter X. Composition. 



Utility and culture 

General aims 

The pupils' motives: pleasui-e, 

spontaneity, interest 
Principles determining selection 

of matter for compositions 
Kinds of composition exercises 
Oral composition 



192. In primary grades 

193. Dr. Maxwell on oral composition 

194. Kinds of written exercises 

195. Dictation 

196. Forms of expression 

197. Reproduction 

198. Paraphrase 

199. Abstract 



CONTENTS 



SECTION 

200. Elaboration 

Kinds of written composition 

Problems 

Selection of subjects 

Some suitable subjects 

The model as a preparation for 

writing 
The selection of a model 
The study of the model 



201, 
202 



204. 
205. 



206. 

207. 



Chapter XL 

216. Value of technical grammar. 

217. Scope of this chapter 

218. A habit of thinking 

219. Facts before conclusions 
223. The syllogism 

221. Fundamental facts in grammar 

222. Development based upon funda- 

mental facts 

223. Oral analysis 

224. Diagrams 

225. Drill 

226. Parsing literary masterpieces 

227. False syntax 

228. Types 

229. Parts of speech 

230. Predicate adjective and adverb 

modifiers distinguished 

231. Personal pronoun and relative 

pronoun 

232. Shall and will, should and would 

233. Modes 

234. Participles and infinitives 

235. Participle 

236. Uses of participles 

237. Distinctions required 

238. Drill on participle used as ad- 

jective ; verbal, or verbal ad- 
jective 

Chapter XII. 

257. The old and the new 

258. Illustration 

259. Broader educational use 

260. New York City Course of Study 

261. Introductory note 

262. Practical purposes 

263. Intellectual purposes 



SECTION 

208. Imitation of the model 

209. The model in criticism 

210. Outlines 

211. Composition without model 

212. Criticism of compositions 

213. Suggestiohs on criticism 

214. Structural errors. 

215. Pertinent questions answered 



Grammar. 

239. Drill on participles used as 

nouns; gerunds, or verbal 
nouns 

240. Drill on participle used as a mere 

adjective 

241. Drill on participle used as a 

mei'e noun. 

242. Uses of infinitives 

243. Drill on infinitives used as nouns 

244. Drill on infinitives used as ad- 

jectives 

245. Drill on infinitives used as ad- 

verbs 

246. The infinitive without to 

247. Development : Words, phrases, 

clauses 

248. Drill on adjective clauses 

249. Development: Concord of rel- 

ative pronoun and antecedent 

250. Development : The noun clause 

251. Drill on noun clauses 

252. Connectives : Explanation and 

drill 

253. Distinctive uses of connectives 

illustrated 

254. Synthetic drill on connectives 

255. Relative pronouns 

256. Exercises in false syntax 

Geography. 

264. Ethical purposes 

265. Col. Parker quoted 

266. Home geography 

267. Fundamental facts 

268. Early lessons 

269. Points of compass 

270. Distance 



CONTENTS 



SECTION 


SECTION 


271. 


Maps 


294. 


Use of pictures 


272. 


Models 


295. 


Outlines by pupils 


273. 


Constructive imagination 


296. 


Aids 


274. 


Analytic and synthetic methods 


297. 


Dr. Maxwell on geography 


275. 


The synthetic method of teach- 


298. 


Suggestions to principals 




ing 


299. 


Results that are essential 


276. 


Excursions 


300. 


Suggested ideas and devices 


277. 


McMurray on excursions 


301. 


The globe and its uses 


278. 


Order of treatment 


302. 


The shape of the earth 


279. 


Representative Geography 


303. 


Climate 


280. 


Derivative or Descriptive Geo- 


304. 


Forms of moisture 




graphy 


305. 


Rain 


281. 


Rational Geography 


306. 


Glaciers 


282. 


Observational Geography 


307. 


Icebergs 


283. 


Concentric circles 


308. 


The seasons 


284. 


Illustration of concentric ar- 


309. 


Zones 




rangement 


310. 


Isotherms 


285. 


Causal relations 


311. 


Latitude and longitude 


286. 


Causal series 


312. 


International Date Line 


287. 


Man and nature 


313. 


Standard Time 


288. 


Types in geography 


314. 


Volcanoes 


289. 


Illustration of a type 


315. 


Winds 


290. 


Comparison 


316. 


Trade winds 


291. 


Plan of study 


317. 


How to study a map 


292. 


Plan for studying a country 


318. 


How to study the text 


293. 


The recitation 







Chapter XIII. History and Civics. 



319. 


New York City suggestions 


335. 


320. 


Early work in history 


336. 


321. 


Geographical background 


337. 


322. 


Current events, anniversaries, 


338. 




excursions 


339. 


323. 


Members of society 


340. 


324. 


Topics for discussion in all 


341. 




grades 


342. 


325. 


Importance of local ordinances 


343. 


326. 


Government by the people 


344. 


327. 


Aim of history and civics 


345. 


328. 


The historical sense 


346. 


329. 


Value of study of history 


347. 


330. 


Text-book method 


348. 


331. 


Use of illustrations 


349. 


332. 


Collateral reading 


350. 


a33. 


The use of maps 


351. 


334. 


Collections of prints and pictures 


352. 



Excursions 

Correlation 

Reviews 

Open text-book recitation 

Topical method 

Verbal repetition 

What should be memorized 

Use of mnemonics 

Questions prepared by pupils 

Outlines made by pupils 

Debates 

Note-books 

Source method 

How to arouse interest 

Cause and effect 

Progress maps 

Chronology 

Biography 

Use of outlines 



CONTENTS 



SECTION 

354. Dramatization of historic events 

355. Local government 

356. Pupil self-government 

357. The process of legislation 



SECTION 

358. Institutional study of history 

and civics 

359. Mental results 

369. Habituation to civic require- 
ments 



Chapter XIV. Arithmetic. 



361. 
362. 
363. 
364. 
365. 
366 

367. 



369. 
370. 
371. 

372. 
373. 
374. 
375. 
376. 
377. 

378. 

379. 

380. 

381. 
382. 
383. 
384. 



New York City view 

Suggestions 

The combinations 

Addition and multiplication 

Subtraction and division 
Constructive and inventional 
exercises 

Problems 

What to look for in solution of 
problems 

Analysis in solution of problems 

Rote work criticised 

Progressive advance in diffi- 
culties by grades 

Utility of arithmetic 

Historical views 

Definition of number 

Counting and measuring 

Aim of primary arithmetic 

Methods of teaching the con- 
cept of number 

Summary of modes of concrete 
number operations 

The use of a book by pupils 

Devices for drill in primary 
grades 

How to mark papers 

The nature of the problems 

Addition 

Subtraction 



385. 


Multiplication 


386. 


Division 


387. 


Grube method : characteristics, 




advantages 


388. 


Objections to Grube method 


389. 


Speer method 


390. 


Spiral method 


391. 


Graphic methods 


392. 


Multiples 


393. 


Divisors 


394. 


Common fractions 


395. 


Decimal fractions 


396. 


Denominate numbers 


397. 


Percentage 


398. 


The syllogism used 


399. 


Algebra used 


400. 


Tests of divisibility 


401. 


Short processes and business 




methods 


402. 


Simple interest 


403. 


Ratio 


404. 


Problems illustrating progres- 




sive order of difficulties 


405. 


Unitary analysis 


406. 


Variable unit 


407. 


Series 


408. 


Decimation 


409. 


Decomposition 


410. 


Other terms explained 



Chapter XV. Reading. 



411. Value 

412. Characteristics of books recently 

used 

413. Types of I'eading matter used 

now 

414. Principles determining the selec- 
tion of reading matter 



415. Analytic methods of teaching 

primary reading : word, sen- 
tence 

416. Synthetic methods: alphabet, 

phonic 

417. Combination method 

418. McCloskey method 



CONTENTS 



XI 



SECTION 


SECTION 


419. 


Rational or Ward method 


435. 


Inflection 


420. 


Gruiding principle today 


436. 


Modulation : pitch, quantity. 


421. 


Suggestions for beginners 




quality 


422. 


Good reading defined 


4:^7. 


Pauses : grammatical, rhetorical 


428. 


Physical difficulties 


438. 


Control of the breath. 


424. 


Mental difficulties 


439. 


Extensive and intensive reading 


425. 


Reading to pupils 


440. 


Home reading 


426. 


Meaning of words 


441. 


Literature and character 


427. 


Aim of phonic training 


442. 


Memory gems 


428. 


How to arouse interest 


443. 


Patriotic selections 


429. 


Complete works vs selections 


444. 


How to memorize a selection 


430. 


Critical reading 


445. 


Biography 


431. 


Silent reading 


446. 


Rhetorical exercises 


432. 


Difficulties in the selection. See 


447. 


Adaptation 




490 


448. 


Variety 


433. 


Articulation violated 


449. 


Correlation 


434. 


Accent and emphasis 


450. 


Habit 



Chapter XVI. 



Examination Department. 
Answers. 



Typical Questions and 



451. 
452. 

453. 

454. 
455. 

456. 

457. 
458. 
459. 



461. 



463. 
464. 



465. 



466. 
467. 



468. 



Association of idea.s 

Observation : cultivation of 
power of 

Attention and interest: ten 

rules 

Consciousness 

Attention defined, discussed, 
illustrated 

Will : James on balky will 

Will : method of training 

Mind-wandering 

Apperception, correlation, gen- 
eral notion, logical memory 

Attention and interest 

Imagination 

Memory discussed and illustrat- 
ed 

Imagination and thinking 

Stages in intellectual develop- 
ment 

Particular notion to general no- 
tion 

Clearness in education 

The meaning of terms: sensa- 
tion, concept, image, induction 

Active, mobile children 

Many-sided interest 



470 Subjects suited to training of 
faculties 

471. Formal steps of instruction 

472. Marking pupils' papers 

473. Home study: arguments for and 

against 

474. Meaning of terms in pedagogics: 
natural punishment, etc. 

475. Meaning of terms in pedagogics 

476. Culture epochs 

477. Concert or rote recitation 

478. Concert recitation 

479. General method applied to 
grammar 

480. Things vs. words 

481. Learning defined 

482. Aims in penmanship 

483. Principles underlying habits 

484. Induction, deduction 

485. Correlation, variety, induction, 

miscellaneous questioning, con- 
crete methods 

486. Individual notions 

487. Self-realization 

488. Principles of education 

489. Discovery vs. being told 

490. Reading : difficulties and rem- 

edies 



XII 



CONTENTS 



491. 
492. 
493. 
494. 
495. 
496. 

497. 



500. 
501. 

502. 
503. 

504, 

505. 
506. 

507. 
508. 
509. 
510. 

511. 

512. 
513. 
514. 
515. 

516. 

517. 
518. 
519. 
520. 
521. 
522. 

523. 

524. 



Pronunciation of shrimp 

Economy of expression 

Composition criticised 

Composition criticised 

Meaning of words : fortify 

Methods : development lesson in 
reading 

Composition : method of teach- 
ing 

Dictation : faulty, good 

Homonyms and synonyms 

The meaning of words 

Misspelling 

Value of debates 

Comparison in study of an ani- 
mal 

Drilling discussed and illus- 
trated 

Value of types 

Types in geography : New York 
City. 

Teaching defined and illustrated 

Renaissance. 

Outline on the Erie Canal 

Outline of topics on Hudson 

River: reasons 

Topical method applied to New 
York State 

School virtues and evils 

Serviceable memory 

Jacotot 

Walker on old and new educa- 
tion 

Hinsdale's view of education 
discussed 

Symbolism 

Ideals in education 

Discipline of consequences 

Self -activity illustrated 

Analysis in percentage 

Percentage: analysis, formula, 
algebra 

Questioning : consecutive, pro- 
miscuous, simultaneous 

Questioning : faulty questions 
criticised 



525. Methods, advantages and disad- 

vantages: five applications 

526. Same topic as 525 : five more ap- 

plications. 

527. Battle of Saratoga decisive 

528. Methods : question, conversa- 

tional, lecture 

529. Self-repoi'ting system criticised 

530. Assignment of lessons criticised 

531. Drawing correlated 

532. Drawing a group 

533. Punishment : defined, approved, 

not approved 

534. Emulation 

535. Analogy 

536. Syllogism 

537. Fatigue 

538. Note books 

539. Social stimulus 

540. Circle of thought 

541. Formal discipline 

542. Visualization 

543. Inhibition 

544. Suggestion 

545. Connotation of terras 

546. Extension and intention of 
terms 

547. Imitation 

548. Abstraction 

549. Action : reflex, impulsive, auto- 

matic, deliberative 

550. Nature study: aims, defects, 

suitable lessons. 

551. Too much written work 

552. Dr. Maxwell's suggestions on 

arithmetic 

553. Drill in observation 

554. Writing as a penalty 

555. Value of phonics 

556. Two trials in spelling 

557. Syllabication 

558. What to observe in studying 

spelling 

559. Relation of climate to animal 

life 

560. Lessons on latitude, Arctic life 



CONTENTS 



XIII 



Chapter XVII. Answers in Methods for Assistant to Principal. 



SECTION SEC 

561. Exercises in reading' before text- 565. 

book 566. 

563. Ways of teaching the meaning 

of words 567. 

563. Difficulties in teaching Englisli 

to foreigners 568. 

564. Unitary analysis 



Multiplication of decimals 

What part one fraction is of an- 
other fraction 

Ideas and thoughts in history ; 
outline of Growth of the Union 

Chicago as a type in geography 



Chapter XVIII. Answers in School Management for Assistant 
to Principal. 



569. 
570. 
571. 

573. 



575. 



576. 

577. 



578. 



Promotion : principles 
Games for first year 
Dishonesty : cheating and steal- 
ing 
Control of feelings and desires 



573. Points of fatigue, plenum vacu- 

um, moral imbecile, artificial 
incentives 

574. Adjustment of seats and desks 



Chapter XIX. Answers in Methods for License No. 1. 



Primary reading exercise on 579. 

Hiawatha 
Lessons on phonograms _ 580. 

Agreement of relative pronoun 581. 

and antecedent 582. 

Processes before reasons in 

arithmetic 



Devices for rapid drill in addi- 
tion 

Causal series in geography 
TjT)e-studies in history 
Nature study lesson on the 
spider 



Chapter XX. Answers in History and Principles of Education 
for License No. 1. 



583. Aims in distributing questions 
among pupils. 

584. Causes of lack of interest in 

reading lesson 

585. Principles justifying certain 

processes in teaching 

586. Three principles underlying 

habit 

587. Synonyms discriminated 

588. Plato, Comenius, Jacotot, Spen- 

cer, Rousseau, Milton 

589. Scholasticism 



590. Jesuits, Froebel, Spencer 

591. Double translation 

592. Power of observation 

593. Music in Greek education 

594. Herbart's doctrine of interest 

595. According to nature 

596. Realism and naturalism 

597. Indirect instruction 

598. Seven Liberal Arts 

599. Emile's studies 

600. Complete living 



Chapter I. Introduction. 

1. The iJurpose of education. — It is not necessary to try to 
construct a new definition of education. By examining a few 
of the definitions before us, we find that the best modern 
thinkers consider that education should give to each individual 
a full development of all his powers. This means physical 
power, intellectual power and moral power. It is a three- 
fold harmonious development that will enable each individual 
to know, to feel, and to do his duty to himself and to the civi- 
lized community in which he lives. It means character and 
efficiency. For further consideration, see Chapters I and II in 
McEvoy's Epitome of History and Principles of Education. 
See section 6. 

2. Scope of this treatise. — The purpose of education expresses 
an aim or an ideal. It gives us a criterion for educative effort. 
Then we must consider the subject-matter suitable in attain- 
ing the ideal. In all our views regarding the use of subject- 
matter, we must think of the one to be educated; and this latter 
thought necessitates a knowledge of psychology. The next 
step is the process or method in adapting and presenting the 
subject-matter to the mind. The plan summarized: 

1. Ideals, aims or purpose in education. 

2. Subject-matter in education: the curriculum. 

3. The mind to be educated: psychology. 

4. Method in education: the processes. 

5. General organization: school management and 

discipline. 

3. Scope of methods in education.^The treatment of methods 
of teaching is usually restricted to particular ways of present- 
ing arithmetic, geography, grammar and other subjects in the 
curriculum. But the larger conception in modern educational 
thought requires the teacher to see and to feel that methods in 



2 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

education mean an orderly movement of the human mind, and 
so it is necessary to understand the essentials of psycholog-y 
and allied studies, which are the sources of all sound methods 
in education. For this reason, the student will here find some 
topics not ordinarily discussed in a book on methods. 

4. Meaning of pedagogics. — As an illustration of the tendency 
toward comprehensive treatment of topics in education, many 
schools are classifying- their educational courses under the 
term pedagogics. The word pedagog-ics is derived from two 
Greek words meaning- the training- or guiding- of boys. Its 
larg-er signification at present covers the theory and the prac- 
tise of teaching- as a profession, embracing the application of 
history and principles of education, methods of teaching-, 
school manag-ement, psychology and ethics. 

The effort to systematize all the facts in pedagogics, is in- 
fluenced by three sources of investigation. 

1. Rational psychology. ' This basis is used by 

Rosenkranz in his Philosophy of Education. 

2. Content of studies and processes of mind. The 

importance of these two standards is exalted 
by Herbart in his Science of Education. 

3. Child study. 

Our interpretation of methods as a part of ped- 
agogics utilizes the three sources of investiga- 
tion just mentioned. 

5. Science of education. — The relations of methods to the 
science of education receive some discussion in this book, but 
those who desire a deeper study are directed to McEvoy's 
Science of Education. The twenty-one chapters deal respect- 
ively with these subjects: Directions to Students, The Study 
of Education, The Meaning of Education, The Subject Matter 
of Education, Superintendent Maxwell on Course of Study, 
Characteristics of Modern Courses of Study, The Culture 
Epoch Theory, Psychology, Instinct and Habit, Attention and 
Interest, Principles of Education, Methods in Education, Ado- 



INTRODUCTION 3 

lescence, Phases of Teaching-, Examinations, Some Special 
Problems, School Management, Approved Set of Answers, 
Other New York Questions and Answers, Questions for 
Students, and Bibliog-raphy. (265 pp., $2, T. J. McEvoy, 
Cortland, N. Y.) 

6. History of education. — The historic development of methods 
in education is a fascinating- and valuable study. This phase 
of the subject will not be repeated since it has been g-iven 
adequate treatment in McEvoy's Epitome of History and Prin- 
ciples of Education. (267 pp., 75 cents, T. J. McEvoy, Cort- 
land, N. Y. ) 



Chapter 11. The Curriculum. 

7. The teacher and the course of study. — The averag^e teach- 
er has little to do in determining- a course of study, but every 
teacher has much to do in carrying- out the requirements of 
prescribed courses. It is necessary, therefore, to know the 
underlying- principles so that the mutual rig-hts of the child 
and the curriculum may be wisely adjusted. 

In the first place, a course of study is not a rig-id standard 
of work, irrespective of pupils, teachers and methods; it is' 
on the other hand, conditioned by those three factors, and all 
four must yield to satisfy the needs of each. When Rousseau 
insisted upon a curriculum of natural material adapted to the 
nature of the child, he directed attention to what has recently 
been recog-nized, namely, that the needs of the child must de- 
termine the course of study and not vice versa. 

8. Principles determining course of study.— Our conception of 
education embodies the reciprocal relations of the individual 
and society. It is not enough to know our civic duties; rig-ht 
thinking- must pass into rig-ht action. So the first principle is 
a sociolog-ical one; the second, psycholog-ical. The former 
shows what subject-matter will tend to develop broad, useful, 
efficient knowledg-e; the latter indicates the manner of adapt- 
ing the chosen subjects to the capacities of individual minds. 

9. Butler on studies. — An illustration of the principles in 8 
may be seen in the course of study outlined by President 
Butler of Columbia University. In defining- education he says: 
"What does the term mean? I answer, it must mean a 
gradual adjustment of the spiritual possessions of the race. 
Those possessions are at least five-fold. The child is entitled 
to his scientific inheritance, to his literary inheritance, to his 
aesthetic inheritance, to his institutional inheritance and to 
his relig-ious inheritance." 



THE CURRICULUM 5 

The scientific inheritance is found in geography, nature 
study, mathematics and physics; the literary inheritance in- 
cludes all forms of literary compositions and interpretation; 
the aesthetic inheritance includes drawing-, music and all 
other kinds of art that may aid in forming a higher conception 
of life; the institutional inheritance is found in all kinds of 
civic training, including political geography, history, civics, 
and all the subordinate forms of government represented in 
state and municipal organizations; and the religious inherit- 
ance includes all forms of training that are conducive to 
spiritual perfection. 

The course of study in Nev^ York City is in agreement with 
the requirements mentioned by Butler. 

10. Former courses of study. — As an interesting comparison, 
recall what was taught in the oriental nations and then trace 
the development through the following courses of study: 

1. Greece, Music and Gymnastics. (Pages 38 and 58, 

Epitome). 

2. Rome. (Pages 60 and 70, Epitome). 

3. Seven Liberal Arts. (P. 86, Epitome). 

4. Sturm's Classical High School Course. (P. 128, 

Epitome). 

5. Ratio Studiorum of the Jesuits. (P. 130, Epitome). 

6. The Comenius Course. ( P. 154, Epitome). 

7. Views of Harris, Dewey, DeGarmo and others. 

(Chapters IV and V, Science of Education). 

11. Contrast of courses of study. — Twenty-five years ago the 
elementary school taught reading, writing, spelling, grammar, 
geography. United States history, and what was called civics. 
In order to fill in the time arithmetical rules of no possible use 
in life were taught, and the children's wits were exercised or 
blunted by outlandish mathematical puzzles; a manual of 
United States history and the constitution of the United States 
were learned by heart; long lists of meaningless names were 
memorized in geography^ parsing, with the utmost detail, was 
continuous; drawing, where drawing was taught, was ex- 



6 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

clusively from flat copies, and the crowning- glory of the school 
was held to be the ability to spell sesquipedalian words whose 
sig-nification had never dawned upon the childish intellect. 

The additions are nature study, intended to train what 
President Eliot calls the 'capacities for productiveness and 
enjoyment' through the progressive acquisition of an elementa- 
ry knowledge of the outside world; algebra, chiefly as an aid, 
through the equation, to the solution of arithmetical problems; 
inventional geometry; 'literature, studied as such, distinct 
from the ordinary reading lesson ; language and composition, 
as the act of expression; drawing from objects; and manual 
training and other physical exercises. This seems a long list, 
and yet every subject is justified and required by the funda- 
mental assumption that the school exists for the progressive 
adaptation of the child's mind to its spiritual environment. In 
other words, each child has a right to the acquisition not only 
of the tools of knowledge, but at least to the beginnings of a 
knowledg-e of literature, of science, of art, of institutions, and 
of ethics, so that when he leaves school he 'may be able to con- 
tinue along the road on which he has started. — Maxwell, St. 
Louis Address, 1904. 

12. Enriching the course of study. — This expression is an in- 
dication of an effort to frame a curriculum that will satisfy 
the majority of pupils. The first paragraph in 11 mentions a 
rigid course formerly used; but as a large number of pupils 
must leave school before completing the elementary course, it 
is desirable to give them some knowledge of the advanced sub- 
jects which bear directly upon the affairs of life. It has been 
found, too, that for all pupils the elements of advanced subjects 
may be taught long before technical words are understood. 
This effort to give breadth, utility and interest to all elementa- 
ry work is called enriching the course of study. For illustra- 
tion see second paragraph in 11. 

13. The culture epoch theory in relation to courses of study. — 
This theory may be expressed in these words: "The individual 



THE CURRICULUM 7 

mind in its development repeats the order of development of the 
race mind." The history of civilization presents certain 
stag"es or epochs as The Stone Age, The Ag-e of Iron, etc. ; or, 
under another classification, wild, barbarous, semi-civilized 
and civilized. Now^ if each stage of race development shows 
certain culture products in religion, history, literature, etc., 
then such culture products should be arranged in the course 
of study for the corresponding epochs or stages in child de- 
velopment. "Fairy-tales for the child, history for the youth, 
philosophy for the man." 

Any attempt to apply the theory closely must be futile, for 
only the most general correspondence can be found between 
the periods of the child's development and the epochs of race 
growth. Even if it were possible to establish exact corres- 
pondence, it would be unwise to plan a course of study and 
methods of teaching in strict conformity therewith, for the 
sufficient reason that, in his recapitulation, the average child 
exhibits some characteristics it is highly desirable to elimi- 
nate. The child, as the heir of the race, should be put in pos- 
session of only the best which the race has gained for him. 
And he should be trained to adapt himself to the actual condi- 
tions of modern life, not to those of bygone eras. — Roark, 
Economy in Education, p. 211. 

In America this theory has not been generally accepted. 
The experiments that have been made here are based upon the 
manumental arts in recognition of the efforts of the race to ad- 
just itself to its material environments. We do, however, admit 
that there should be an adaptation of subject-matter in a 
course of study, and the culture epoch theory has given some 
aid in making this adaptation. See page 25 in Dexter and 
Garlick's Psychology. 

14. Correlation of studies. — Correlation is putting such sub- 
jects side by side at a given time in the course as will help to 
bring to view the universal relations involved in the study of 
any one of them.-r-Tompkins, Philosophy of Teaching, p. 263. 



8 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Illustration: *'In treating- the Hudson river as a type we 
come upon the mountains, forests, water power, and manu- 
facturing of its upper course; the navigation, cities, railroads, 
and scenery of its lower course; its commercial connec- 
tions by canal with the coal fields of Pennsylvania, with 
the forests of the north by canal to Lake Champlain, with the 
Great Lakes by the Erie canal along the Mohawk to Buffalo. 
The harbor and city of New York and their easy connections 
with the Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi Valley, are 
on one side, with the Atlantic coast and the marts of Europe 
on the other. Historically, the Hudson is very attractive; 
Hudson and his contact with the Indians, Washington and his 
campaigns, the old forts and the battle scenes, Arnold and 
Andre, Burgoyne's invasion. In literature Irving has made 
certain spots on its banks as famous as the old battle grounds. 
From a purely scientific standpoint, the great drowned valley, 
its palisades, mountains, and incoming ocean tides are at 
once sugg-ested. Thus we have the relations of geography to 
history, literature, and natural science." 

15. Report of the Committee of Fifteen on correlation of studies. — 

Your Committee understands by correlation of studies : 

/. Logical order of topics and branches 

First, the arrangement of topics in proper sequence in the 
course of study, in such a manner that each branch develops 
in an order suited to the natural and easy progress of the 
child, and so that each step is taken at the proper time to help 
his advance to the next step in the same branch, or to the 
next steps in other related branches of the course of study. 

2. Symmetrical whole of studies in the world of 
hum,an learning 

Second, the adjustment of the branches of study in such a 
manner that the whole course at any given time represents all 
the great divisions of human learning, as far as is possible at 
the stage of maturity at which the pupil has arrived, and that 



THE CURRICULUM 9 

each allied group of studies is represented by some one of its 
branches best adapted for the epoch in question ; it being- im- 
plied that there is an equivalence of studies to a greater or 
less degree within each group, and that each branch of human 
learning should be represented by some equivalent study ; so 
that, while no great division is left unrepresented, no group 
shall have superfluous representatives and thereby debar other 
groups from a proper representation. 

J. Psychological symmetry — the whole mind 
Third, the selection and arrangement of the branches and 
topics within each branch considered psychologically with a 
view to afford the best exercise of the faculties of the mind, 
and to secure the unfolding of those faculties in their natural 
order, so that no one faculty is so overcultivated or so neglected 
as to produce abnormal or one-sided mental development. 

4. Correlation of pupil's course of study with the 
world in which he lives — his spiritual and 
natural environm,ent 
Fourth and chiefly, your Committee understands by corre- 
lation of studies the selection and arrangement in orderly 
sequence of such objects of study as shall give the child an 
insight into the world that he lives in, and a command over its 
resources such as is obtained by a helpful co-operation with 
one's fellows. In a word, the chief consideration to which all 
others are to be subordinated, in the opinion of your Committee, 
is this requirement of the civilization into which the child is 
born, as determining not only what he shall study in school, 
but what habits and customs he shall be taught in the family 
before the school age arrives; as well as that he shall acquire 
a skilled acquaintance with some one of a definite series 
of trades, professions, or vocations in the years that follow 
school; and, furthermore, that this question of the relation of 
the pupil to his civilization determines what political duties 
he shall assume and what religious faith or spiritual aspira- 
tions shall be adopted for the conduct of his life. — Pp. 40, 41. 



10 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

16. Concentration of studies. — A curriculum based upon con- 
centration of studies has one study as the centre or core and 
other related studies are g-rouped around the core. Ziller, a 
disciple of Herbart, used literature and history as the core; 
Col. Parker used geog-raphy ; and John Dewey advocates 
manual training-. 

Concentration favors a strict interpretation of the culture 
epoch theory. Germany favors concentration but America 
does not. Ziller used Robinson Crusoe as the central study. 
All languag-e lessons w^ere based upon it; arithmetic measured 
the voyag"e, the time on the island, 'the number of sheep and 
goats, etc.; g-eography became vivid by tracing the routes vd 
locating the island ; constructive pov^^ers w^ere exercised i i- 
itating Robinson in making- ladders, fish-hooks, tool. u.nd 
other equipments; moral lessons w^ere learned from Robinson's 
patience, kindness and perseverance. In America Hiav^^atha 
has been used in making similar typical lessons. 

17. Co-ordination of studies. — The arrangement of studies in 
g-roups of equal rank is co-ordination of studies. See Butler's 
views in section 9. 

18. Correlation, concentration and co-ordination distinguished. — 

Observe that concentration makes use of one central study 
with radiating lines of related knowledge; that co-ordination 
makes use of more than one study, — five in the scheme of 
Harris, such groups being of equal value; and that correlation 
utilizes the general lines of related knowledg-e running throug^h 
and unifying all the subjects and all the g-roups of subjects in 
the course of study. Correlation is a general term including 
concentration and co-ordination. 



Chapter III. Definitions in Psychology. 

19. Limitations. — The two chapters on psychology are not a 
substitute for an approved text-book on this subject. In this 
chapter certain definitions are given to aid students who do 
not need to make an exhaustive study of psychology in order 
to pass in methods. The definitions are based upon Dexter 
and Garlick's Psychology in the School Room, abbreviated 
D. ; Welch's Teachers' Psychology and Gordy's New Psy- 
chology. 

20. Consciousness. — Consciousness is the name given to all 
possible mental operations. — D., p. 2. 

21. Mind. — Mind is a spiritual force that manifests itself in 
knowing, feeling and willing. 

22. Knowing. — Knowing is the act of affirming the certainty 
of states of consciousness. 

23. Feeling. — Feeling is a term that indicates pleasant or 
painful states of consciousness. 

24. Willing. — Willing is the act of the mind in making a 
choice of desires. 

25. Will. — The will is the power which operates in the mind 
in willing. 

26. Faculties. — A faculty is a mental power which acts upon 
objects, external or internal, and discriminates them from one 
another. We must not, however, think of the mind as com- 
posed of separate faculties. The mind is a unit, but it can 
manifest itself in different ways; and for convenience v/e shall 
use the word faculties to indicate the different manifestations 
of power. 

27. Object, action, product of a faculty. — "That on which the 
mind acts in the exercise of any faculty, is termed the object 
of that faculty. I hear a peal of thunder; the sound so heard 
is the object of the faculty of hearing. The action of this fac- 
ulty is called listening; the product of such action on the 



12 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

object referred to, is a notion or idea of the sound of thunder." 
In teachiog-, the subject matter of instruction is the object; the 
principles of education are applied in the action; and the prod- 
uct is the ultimate purpose of all education. 

28. Attention. — Attention is the centering of the act of any 
faculty upon its object, by an impulse of the will. — Welch. 

Consciousness occupying- itself with an object is attention.— 
Home. 

Attention is concentrated consciousness. Attention is not a 
faculty of the mind; it is simply a concentration of conscious- 
ness upon some particular object, external or internal. 

Attention is that act of the mind by which we bring- into 
clear consciousness any subject or object before the mind. — 
Grordy. 

29. Interest. — Interest is the name g-iven to the pleasurable 
or painful feelings which are evoked by an object or an idea, 
and which give that object the power of arousing and holding 
the attention. — D., 31. 

30. Apperception. — Apperception is the process by which a 
mass of presentations assimilate relatively new elements, the 
whole forming a system. The new material assimilated may 
be either given in sensation or reproduced by the internal 
working of the psychological mechanism; and attention, in 
the broad sense of noticing an object, coincides in the main, 
but not altogether, with the apperceptive process. 

Apperception is the interpretation of new knowledge in the 
light of that previously obtained: mental assimilation. 

31. Sensation. — A sensation is a simple mental state result- 
ing from the stimulation or excitation of the outer or peripheral 
extremity of an incarrying or sensitive nerve. — Sully. 

32. Sense-perception: the gathering of percepts. — Perception 
is the general name of a faculty through whose action the 
mind gains knowledge, whether of things without or within 
ourselves. Sense-perception is the faculty which supplies the 
mind with knowledge of external objects through the action of 



DEFINITIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY 13 

the senses of touch, sight and hearing. In exposure to a storm 
I see, hear, and feel the driving rain. In this act of sense- 
perception the senses employed are those of touch, sight and 
hearing. The object is the driving rain; the acts put forth 
art: feeling, seeing and hearing; and the product of these acts, 
while in progress, is a notion or percept of the rain. The 
percept in this case unites in itself the elements gained from 
feeling, seeing, and hearing. If the object of my sense-per- 
ception had been a thing which was visible but not tangible, 
or audible, as a picture, a cloud, or a rainbow, the percept 
would have contained only the elements gained from the act 
of a sight. — Welch, 5. 

33. Observation. — Observation is the acquisition of knowl- 
edge by direct sense-perception. 

34. Memory : storing concepts.— Memory is the faculty which 
unconsciously receives, retains, and restores the products or 
ideas gained through the action of the other faculties. — Welch, 
p. 6. 

35. Imagination : building concepts.— The process of making 
images is imagination. An image is a revived percept. 

36. Conception: holding concepts.— Conception is a mental 
process which results in a concept. — D., 150. 

37. Concept. — A concept is a re-presentation in our minds 
a iswering to a general name. — Sully. 

38. Judgment : connecting concepts. — A judgment is an asser- 
tion of agreement or disagreement between two ideas. — D., 163. 

39. Reasoning: deriving concepts.— Reasoning is the faculty 
that derives new truths or concepts from class concepts al- 
reiidy known. — Welch, 11. 

40. Self-activity. — Self-activity, as a principle in conscious- 
ness, means self-direction. — Home. 

Conscious effort in the evolution of possibilities is termed 
self- activity. — Bo3'^er. 

41. Habit. — A fixed tendency to think, feel, or act in a par- 
ticular way is habit. 



Chapter IV. Methods in Mind Training. 



42. The plan simplified. — The subject of this chapter is com- 
prehensive enough to include the whole field of education. 
Students are confronted with conflicting- theories about the 
possibility or impossibility of training- the faculties, and then 
further conflict is found reg-arding effectual methods. Let us 
take it for granted that each faculty can be trained, or else it 
will be necessary to defend the value of education of any kind; 
and let us see if there is a simple presentation of methods of 
training the mind. 

43. The plan outlined. 



TACULTIES. 

Sensation. 

Perception (Observation) . 

Memory. 

Imagination. 

Conception. 

Judgment. 

Reasoning. 



PRlNCIPr-ES OF 
EDUCATION. 

Attention. 
Interest. 
Apperception. 
Self -activity. 



RESULTS. 

Habit. 

Habituation to 

right thinking, 
right feeling, 
right willing. 



44. The plan explained. — The first column shows the faculties 
in their natural order of development. In each faculty there is 
a physical factor and a psychical factor "to be considered. 
The former is the physical substance of the body; the latter is 
the mental or spiritual result of the process. 

In every educational process there are certain principles of 
education to be observed. They are given in the second column. 
Thus in training any one of the seven faculties, all four of 
those principles should be used; and the order in which they 
are used is the order given in the second column. 

There are many aims of education but it is possible to sum- 
marize all of them in habit. The process of forming habits is 
habituation. School life may only begin the process but school 



METHODS IN MIND TRAINING 1$ 

life should direct the habituation toward the right end. Think 
of all the purposes of education as you view them and see if 
they are not all included under habituation to right thinking^ 
right feeling and right willing. 

45. Physical basis of mind.— The entire body is the physical 
basis of the mind. Strictly speaking, the nervous system is 
the basis, but it is better to consider the nervous system as the 
intermediary between the mind and the other parts of the 
body. In either view, the close relation between the physical 
and the psychical is evident. This relation shows the necessity 
of observing the physical conditions of the child himself, of the 
school and of the home. Little progress can be made in mental 
training if the child is hungry, fatigued, ill, or uncomfortable 
on account of light, heat, ventilation or seating. 

Another phase of the physical side of educations relates to 
actions and reactions. An external stimulus of any one of the 
senses is transmitted by the afferent nerve to the brain; if 
agreeable the brain will receive the message and then transfer 
the message by an efferent nerve to the motor organs. Thus 
the brain is said to react upon sensations. It is the teacher's 
duty to present all subject-matter in such a way that each 
mind can receive favorable impressions. Then the mind will 
react, i. e., convert the impressions into action and thereby 
complete the process of getting ideas. 

46. Reaction in psychology. — A further explanation of the 
last paragraph is necessary. The meaning of mental reaction 
is expressed in the maxim, "There is no impression without 
expression." Another view of it is this: "Every idea tends 
to realize itself in action." In teaching it is necessary, there- 
fore, to see that there is a reaction; that the impression receive 
its complementary expression through verbal reproduction, 
written reproduction or material reproduction as exemplified 
in the various forms of manual training. 

James expresses himself thus : Regular response to stimu- 
lation is reaction. Education as a process consists in furnish- 
ing proper stimulation and in directing the responses. 



16 



METHODS IN EDUCATION 



Sensuous impressions are not properly educative if they fail 
to-beg-et a correlative motor activity. The physiological process 
is this : (1) impulse from external centre; (2) the translation 
in the central process; (3) the changed impulse is transmitted 
to the motor organ. — Talks to Teachers, Chapter V. 

47. Diagram for reaction. — The physical basis for every con- 
scious process is the passing over from afferent process to 
efferent process. Every mental state implies a bodily action. 
Compare self-activity. 

Portion of brain equivalent to an idea 



sensory 
area 



afferent 




efferent 



sense organ 



muscle 



48. Summary. — All the faculties are trained by the process 
of reactions. The selection, arrangement and presentation 
of matter suitable for reaction requires the use of sound 
methods of teaching. The harmonious relations of processes, 
principles and results must be kept in view as explained in 
44. 

49. The relation of psychical elements. — If the question arises 
in regard to what psychical elements constitute any one of the 
faculties, simply recall the order of the faculties and then re- 
member that each faculty includes all of the preceding faculties. 
Thus the psychical elements in imagination are sensation, 
percepts and memory products. 

50. The training of the will. — The matter suggested in the fol- 
lowing sections on the training of the will is given for the 
benefit of those students who are unable tt> satisfy themselves 
with the material given in the ordinary text-books. This out- 
line is not intended to supplant any other authorized material; 
it is given in the form of suggestion. 



METHODS IN MIND TRAINING 17 

Strength of will does not mean physical force. It is mental 
and cannot be measured by any physical unit. Strength of 
will lies between the weakness of will and stubbornness. 

51. Characteristics of a weak will. 

1. Failure to pursue the same object to the end. 

The object may be dropped altogether or it may 
be changed frequently. The probable cause 
is that the leading impulse in life has lost its 
force. 

2. • Little or no power over impulse, inclination or 

habit. There is a conflict of emotion but not 
a conflict of ideas in the mind. 

3. A weak will magnifies difficulties and shrinks 

from them. The magnified perception of diffi- 
culties causes effort to avoid such obstacles. 

4. Easily moved by threat, persuasion or example. 

Imitation is an important function of the mind. 
The man of weak will is afraid that if he does 
not do wrong as he sees it in others he will be 
looked down upon. 

5. Ivacking in power of concentration. The more 

he tries to concentrate his attention, the less he 
seems able to do so. This is the strongest 
characteristic, psychologically considered. 
The weak will cannot hold the predominating 
idea before consciousness. 

52. Characteristics of the stubborn will. 

1. Steady adherence to a purpose once formed. 

This is the foundation of stubbornness. 

2. Unwillingness to take opposite view, alter judg- 

ment or change course of action. This is the 
real characteristic of stubbornness. The man 
refuses to yield although there are good 
reasons; he is unreasonable. 

3. The liability to continue in evil as well as in 

good; very bad effects from this. 



18 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. , Power of concentration on himself instead of on 
the object that elevates his action. He will 
not abandon himself to accept the view of an- 
other. 

53. Characteristics of strength of will. — As has already been 
said strength of will lies between weakness of will and stub- 
bornness of will. 

1. The ability to follow the dictates of reason in- 

stead of feeling-, inclination or habit. Reason 
should move the will. It implies ability to 
follow reason but does not necessarily force 
one always to follow that reason. 

2. Readiness to change action when reason has 

made its decision known to the will. The key- 
stone of the w^ill is the ability to hold an idea 
before consciousness. This is the opposite of 
5 under 51. This holding becomes the cause 
for analysis of idea and new channels in motor 
efficiency become operative as new phases of 
the idea appear. 

54. Practical effects. — Reflection upon thought of reform leads 
to action. Here is the analysis of the idea again; not im- 
pulsive action but reason and will working together. Better 
results from personal reflection than from impulsive action 
under external influences. There is a subjective decision after 
holding the idea steadily before the mind, 

55. Causes of weak will. — The causes are physical or mental. 
Any organic trouble will weaken the will. Ordinary physi- 
cal weakness such as fatigue affects the will. No great task 
should be undertaken after a hard day's work nor should any 
important decision be made at that time. Among the mental 
causes of weak will are the following: 

1. The lack of definite aim. Aimlessness wastes 

energy by scattering it; the will is deadened. 

2, Half-hearted resolve with hesitating execution. 



METHODS IN MIND TRAINING 19 

3. The failure to realize that success depends on 

each individual volition. 

4. The lack of orderly, systematic living. Too 

much routine is not desirable, but all the less 
valuable affairs of life should be put into 
mechaniqal processes. 

5. Over-estimating- our ability to do things. If too 

much is undertaken the brain and the nervous 
system rebel. When the time for rest does 
come, the nervous system lacks pow^er to rest 
in proportion as it has been overw^orked during 
the time for w^ork. An application of this 
last thought is found in setting tasks for 
pupils. If the child's ability is 90, see that 
the maximum task is less than that. The 
danger is not the failure itself but the child's 
realization of failure. The imagination is 
likely to exaggerate the failure and thus 
weaken the will. 

56. Causes of strength of will.— In general the causes of 
strength of will are the opposite of the causes of weakness of 
will. Some particular causes are the following: 

1. Intellectual habit of making our ideas clear. 

The influence of motor effects is powerful. 

2. Power to turn upon ourselves and determine our 

strength and weakness. This is self-knowl- 
edge. If we are surprised at ourselves it is 
proof that we do not examine ourselves often 
enough. 

3. Prompt execution of those things we decide upon. 

57. Cultivation of will power : preliminary processes.— It is neces- 
sary to have certain principles or convictions which can be 
used in undertaking the cultivation of the will. The main 
factors are outlined here. 



20 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

1. An abiding- conviction that the will can be 

strengthened. Sporadic efforts are not use- 
ful. Doubt or resignation will render the task 
worthless; we must have definite convictions 
in favor of success. 

2. Find our habits by introspection and then analyze 

these habits. It is not enoug-h to see the ex- 
istence of habits; we must see how such habits 
assert themselves and then remove the causes 
of undesirable habits. We should follow this 
process regarding impulsive action in partic- 
ular. 

1 3. Cultivation of the will must be a continued effort. 

A few efforts or a few successes in checking 
tendencies cannot possibly do such an import- 
ant work. Time is required for the cultivation 
of any vital process. Danger is in procrasti- 
nation; the date of beginning correction is put 
off in the idea that we can do the desired cor- 
recting in a short time. We cannot do so. 

4. Cultivation of the will takes place through will- 

ing. It does not come through contemplation. 
Illustration — Learning to play piano. 

5. After finding tendencies out by analysis, take 

each tendency separately. Select the one that 
is the root or occasion of one or more bad 
habits and focalize will power upon that one. 
The reason for this is that the amount of will 
bestowed upon this one will lighten the work 
of correcting all of the others. 

58. Cultivation of will power : actual processes. — Positive ac- 
tion is leading to willing to do something. Negative action is 
leading to willing to leave something undone. Is inhibition 
ever advisable? Will power as such is always positive. 
Positive and negative actions will be considered separately. 



METHODS IN MIND TRAINING 21 

59. Negative action and cultivating the will. — One process is 
the gradual breaking off of the habit. The character of the 
individual, the nature of the habit, the length of time the habit 
has existed, etc., will determine whether the chang-e should be 
gradual or abrupt. In this work we are considering the effect 
upon the will, not the effect upon the body; therefore no gen- 
eral rule can be laid down. The suggestions' under abrupt 
breaking of habit are considered one by one. 

1. Prepare by various minor acts of control. Do 

this especially when habit is strong and ob- 
stinate. The minor acts will begin the self- 
assertion of the will. Every act of this kind 
gives will much reserve power for the principal 
resolution. 

2. When resolution is taken, do not look too far into 

the future. The imagination becomes an op- 
position to will. If we carry out resolution 
for the present, we shall find that we shall 
suffer no positive privation in the future 

3. Force of privation is not realized until we try to 

break habit. Such craving can be lessened 
by turning attention to craving itself rather 
than to the object of craving. Reason : Atten- 
tion to objective makes craving more vivid by 
increasing motor power. New law in psy- 
chology is that attention to emotion decreases 
strength of idea; attention to object increases 
strength of idea. 

4. Put off the suggested craving until a later time. 

Psychological lav/: Putting interval of time 
between craving and indulgence, lessens crav- 
ing. 

SUGGESTIONS 

5. Have some absorbing thought to which attention 

may be turned when craving comes. The ob- 
jectionable thought may be prevented from 
entering consciousness. Law of association. 



22 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

6. Deliberately set obstacles in way of undesirable 

habit. Illustration : Man wishes to stop smok- 
ing ; he knows he never smokes on street; when 
craving- comes, go to street. 

7. When one victory has been obtained, reflection 

upon victory tends to strengthen will. 

8. When a failure comes, reflection upon trivial 

character of indulgence will strengthen will. 
See how little pressure was and how small 
the gratification is. 



Chapter V. School Economy. 

60. Meaning. — The rules, reg-ulations and laws g-overning- 
the conduct of schools constitute school economy. The word 
economy implies a minimum of waste and a maximum of 
achievement. For details of this subject see Shaw's School 
Hygiene, Morrison's The Ventilation and Heating of School 
buildings, Kotelmann's School Hygiene, and Button's School 
Management. 

61. Space.— At least one hundred twenty cubic feet of space 
should be allowed for each pupil. The general requirements 
for recitation purposes, physical exercises, ccat halls, etc., 
vary according to local conditions, but convenience and com- 
fort of pupils and teachers are two essentials in all schools. 

62. Light. — The light should come from the left hand side 
and somewhat above the level of the desk. Light from the 
right hand side causes the shadow of the hand to fall on the 
pupils' work; from behind, there is a larger shadow from the 
head and the trunk; from in front, the light is harmful to the 
eyes and round shoulders are caused by the pupils' bending 
down to avoid the direct glare. As a rule, light -is permitted 
to enter from many parts of the room and then curtains or 
blinds are used to regulate the amount and the intensity of the 
light. 

63. Heat. — ^The average temperature desired is 64 to 70 
Fahrenheit. 

64. Ventilation. — The aim of ventilation is to remove impure 
air and replace it by pure warm air. From thirty to fifty 
cubic feet of pure air per minute are required for each pupil. 
Some means of securing ventilation from circulation are the 
following : 

1. Doors and windows. To be opened during- 
marching-, games and recreation periods. 



24 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

"Boards, five or six inches in width, placed 
under the windows are a well-known device. 
Still better are hoods at the top of the win- 
dows, closely fitting- the sash, so that when 
the windows are open from the top the air is 
deflected toward the ceiling-, and is gradually 
diffused throughout the room without falling 
too directly on the heads of the pupils." 

2. Shafts leading from outside the building up 

through the floor to a height of six or seven 
feet. This height is required so that no draft 
will be felt by the children. 

3. By the indirect method fresh air is carried into 

the building through large ducts, containing 
stacks of radiating surface, and directly into 
the rooms through registers which are usually 
placed near the ceiling. The impure air is 
carried out through a register usually placed 
directly underneath the incoming air, by means 
of separate ducts made somewhat larger than 
those provided for fresh air. Thus a school- 
room, heated and ventilated in this way, has 
a volume of fresh air constantly entering the 
room and an equal volume of impure air con- 
stantly passing out. — Dutton, p. 62. 

4. A gravity system is one where the draught neces- 

sary for withdrawing the foul air is caused 
by a heated chimney or duct. In every large 
building this method is not adequate or re- 
liable, and ventilating fans are used either as 
a means of forcing the fresh air into the build- 
ing, or of drawing out the foul air, or both. — 
Button, p. 62. 

5. A fire-place is a good ventilator but not a uni- 

form heater. 



SCHOOL ECONOMY 25 

65. Seating. — Adjustable seats and desks are the best. The 
seat should be adjusted at such a height that the pupil's feet 
will rest on the floor while the legs from the knee to the thigh 
are at right angles to the trunk. The best adjustable desk 
has a slant of about fifteen degrees but it can be raised to a 
level when necessary. Seats that are not adjustable are 
usually arranged according to definite sizes. 

66. Decoration. — This feature of school equipment has much 
to do with the spirit of the school. The walls and ceiling 
should be painted in some color restful to the eye. French 
grey, pale buff, and light green are approved. A few good pic- 
tures should displace a meaningless collection of cheap prints. 
Maps, diagrams and the superior work of pupils are legitimate 
kinds of school decoration. Some teachers hold that maps, 
diagrams and pupils' papers tend to distract the class by in- 
viting attention away from the lessons, but a sounder view is 
that such diagrams have a high educative value from visualiz- 
ation during those periods when pupils naturally turn from 
study to relieve their minds. Compare James on mind- 
wandering. 

67. Grounds. — Three paragraphs are quoted from Garlick's 
New Manual of Method, p. 6. 

1. "Physical uses. — A play ground is the lung of a 

school. It is as essential to a proper and effic- 
ient education as the schoolroom itself. It is 
the workshop for the manufacture of the sound 
body, as the schoolroom is for the sound mind. 
It offers relief after mental work, and brings 
into play the overcramped muscles. It is a 
healthy agency for the overflow of that abund- 
ant spontaneity of child life, which may 
become so troublesome to discipline if not 
regulated." 

2. "Its moral uses. — It brings brightness to the 

school life and helps to engender a love for 



26 METHODS IN EDUCATION 



school by making- it popular. It is a fine 
training- ground for the emotions. Boys learn 
to discipline themselves in their sport, to sub- 
mit their wills to the will of others. It is a 
great leveller and compensating- force ; for the 
dullard may be a physical adept. He wins in 
the playg-round the respect which he cannot 
attain in the school; for muscle is worshipped 
as much as brain. The bully is checked, the 
timid and shy get nerve and confidence by 
means of the playground's supervised play." 
'The teacher's work. — Gymnastics should be 
encourag-ed by the teacher, and, in the case of 
boys, a little instruction might be given. Su- 
pervision should always be exercised. The 
presence of the teacher will often tempt a boy 
to try something- which otherwise mig-ht be be- 
yond his inclination. Games calculated to de- 
velop their strength, to give muscular control, 
to aid the growth of the will, such as our popu- 
lar g-ames, should be encouraged, sometimes 
shared, and sometimes directed by the teacher. 
Many now form and take an active interest in 
the cricket, football, and swimming- clubs of 
their scholars, and they do not find it unpro- 
ductive labor." 



Chapter VI. School Management. 

68. Principles. — ^The three essential principles underlying- 
school manag-ement in New York City are definite responsi- 
bility, free discussion, and spontaneity and orig-inality. 
These essentials are stated by Dr. Maxwell anc* discussed 
by him in McEvoy's Science of Education, pag-e 23o. These 
same principles apply to any other school system. 

69. Qualifications of Teachers. — Health, scholarship, charac- 
ter and professional spirit are requisite qualifications of the 
g-ood teacher. The importance of each of these is not deter- 
mined by the order stated, nor do we mean to say that 
other qualities are excluded. Fidelity, sincerity, fairness, 
sympathy, and other particular characteristics deserve dis- 
cussion, but our limited treatment makes the four general 
qualifications include all such particular indications of merit. 

Another view of this topic is given on pages 143 to 148 in 
McEvoy's Science of Education. There Dr. Maxwell's opinion 
is given in full. Here an outline of his address will suffice. 

How to Estimate a Teacher's Vahie. 

By Dr. Maxwell. 
Teachers deemed fit and meritorious should be marked A or 
B; all others, C or D. The A mark should be reserved for 
teachers of conspicuous ability. 

IMPORTANT THINGS IN TEACHING ABILITY. 

1. Ability to impart knowledge, or power of exposi- 

tion. Do not do too much. Talking too much is a 
common fault. 

2. Ability to interest pupils. Without interest, teach- 

ing fails to become a part of pupil's makeup. 

3. Ability to train pupils to good intellectual and moral 

habits, i. e., character. 



28 METHODS IN EDUCATION 



SIGNS OF POOR TEACHING ABILITY. 

1. Requiring parrot-like repetition of text-book. 

2. Most concert recitation is bad. 

3. Neg-lecting- pupils' observing- and inventing powers. 

4. Weak questioning. 

5. Neg-lect in use of object teaching. 

6. Waste of teacher's or pupils' time. 

7. Rate teacher's scholarship by her mastery of her 

subject, daily preparation, and interesting appli- 
cation of current events. 

Rate effort by her activity in school work and by 
her efforts to improve by study outside of school. 

PERSONALITY OF TEACHER. 

1. Neatness and fitness of dress. No place for old so- 

ciety dresses. 

2. Pleasing tone of voice and clear enunciation. 

3. 'Sympathy for children. 

4. Decision of character. 



CONTROL OF CLASS. 

The only control to be marked meritorious is that ob- 
tained by interest in the work. Promise of reward, 
fear and repression deserve C or D. Repeated 
presentation of dishonest work by pupils is evi- 
dence of unj&t control. 
Your general estimate of a teacher's ability need not be 
an average of your detailed marks. Bear in mind 
that the object of these ratings is not to fill columns 
with marks, but to do something to raise the 
teaching force of the city to a higher plane than it 
yet occupies. 
70. Program, — Every school and every class in a graded 
school should have a daily program posted in a conspicuous 
place, and that program should be followed closely. This 
matter is so important that we think it necessary to give 
specific reasons. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 29 

1. Teaching- by sug-g-estion. When the teacher 

makes a program, posts it, and adheres to it 
for all periods of work and recreation, there is 
a silent sug-gestion for similar order in the life 
of every pupil. It is indirect instruction; it is 
suggestion ; it is example. The worth of such 
systematic procedure is valued by pupils, and 
teachers will soon see that most of the pupils 
have made a neat copy of the entire prog-ram 
for individual desk use. By using a rubber 
pen the class program can be made large 
enough to be seen from any part of the room. 

2. The law of habit. There is no need of blaming- 

pupils for inability to study so long- as teach- 
ers do not observe the psychological value of 
habit in studying. If we eat, drink, sleep, or 
attend to other physical needs at certain times, 
habit soon becomes so regular that no clock is 
needed to g-uide our wants. It is the same in 
mental habits. The study of mathematics at 
a certain time puts the body and mind into 
favorable conditions for mathematics at that 
time every day, and no great variation in time 
can be safely made. Likewise for each study 
and for each recreation exercise on the pro- 
g-ram. 

3. The law of change or variety. A good program 

alternates difficult and easy periods, puts 
memory processes in the morning-, and places 
the shorter periods in the afternoon. This va- 
riety is not theory; it is a physical necessity. 
The problem of fatigue has demonstrated this. 
See 107. 

71. Opening exercises. — Some teachers think the regular 
work is so important that no time should be taken for morning 



30 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

exercises. This is a mistaken opinion. Ten or fifteen minutes 
in the morning- will do more in the real work of education than 
hours in the facts of mathematics or grammar. Why? Well, 
look back to the purpose of education. The pupils enter school 
each day well or ill, happy or ang-ry, industrious or mis- 
chievous, as the case may be. There is lack of haimonious 
thought and action, lack of bodily and mental poise, lack of 
self-control. The one thing to do in education is to furnish the 
environment that will produce the desired conditions of mind 
and body. Books aside, comfortable position, reasonable 
silence, respectful attention, — these are conditions required for 
the morning exercises. These are the conditions that make 
the school a harmonious unit for the work of the day. Then 
follows the reading of Scripture or other exemplary books, 
singing, current events, recitation, declamation, or brief talks 
by the teacher. 

The value of opening exercises in arousing a good school 
spirit is manifest. A second value is in stimulating punctu- 
ality. Habit is here a development; it is always so. Personal 
experience leads me to urge teachers to try some devices for 
overcoming tardiness. 

The aim is to get the pupils to school in time once so that 
the process of habituation may be started. Make the pupil 
conscious of that one success by commending him. Then try 
these devices : 

1. Memory gems. Have a short, pleasing memory 

gem on the board. Have pupils read it to- 
gether, learn it together and repeat it together. 
Social stimulus in this. Learn one or two 
each week. 

2. Desire. Read a portion of an interesting story 

two or three times a week. This arouses 
desire to hear more. 

3. Interest in songs. Sing the old home songs oc- 

casionally. Let pupils select the ones. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 31 

4. Expectancy: declamation. Have a short recita- 

tion or declamation occasionally. Put title 
and name of pupil on the board the day before, 
or simply announce that someone will recite. 

5. Monitors. Appoint tardy pupil a monitor to act 

before school calls. He will be present. 

6. Motives. Organize for marching, athletics, 

memory selections, singing, perfect attend- 
ance,— something that will arouse class spirit 
in working under a motive. 

7. Anecdotes. Read or relate an anecdote giving 

the value of punctuality. Exalt the positive, 
the good; don't preach about the defects. "My 
cook," said Washington, "never asks if the 
visitors have arrived, but if the hour has ar- 
rived." 

8. The teacher an example. Teacher always 

punctual. Have a program and always follow 
it. 

9. Honor roll. Roll of honor for good attendance. 
10. Fellowship. The school is a social 'unity and 

every person in it owes a duty. Think, feel 

and act so that no one can assume the right to 

be tardy. 

The selection of memory gems is another matter that must 

be determined by the actual needs of the pupils. The platform 

given below has satisfied thousands of pupils. The use of the 

word platform invites a comparison or analogy: use civics and 

history in discussing party platforms. 

Our Platform. 

1. The only way to have a friend is to be one. — Emer- 

son. 

2. Be not simply' good, be good for something. — Thoreau. 

3. No one can disgrace us but ourselves. — J.G.Holland. 



32 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. Heaven never helps the man who will not act. — 

Sophocles. 

5. People do not lack strength; they lack will. — Victor 

Hugo. 

6. It is well to think well; it is divine to act well. — 

Horace Mann. 

7. Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. — 

Chesterfield. 

8. Things don't turn up in this world until somebody 

turns them up. — Garfield. 

9. He that is good at making excuses is seldom good for 

anything else. — Franklin. 

10. I hate to see things done by halves. If it be right, 

do it boldly; if it be wrong, leave it undone. — 
Gilpin. 

11. The chains of habit are generally too small to be 

felt till they are too strong to be broken. ^ — ^Samuel 
Johnson. 

12. Our greatest glory consists not in never falling, but 

in rising every time we fall. — Goldsmith. 

13. He that avoideth not small faults, by little and little 

falleth into greater. — Thomas a Kempis. 

14. It requires a good strong man to say: "I was mis- 

taken, and am sorry." A weak man hesitates 
and often fails to do the right thing. — Franklin. 

15. Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark 

of celestial fire called conscience. — Washington. 

16. There are two freedoms — the false, where a man is 

free to do what he likes; the true, where a man is 
free to do what he ought. — Charles.Kingsley. 

17. Let us have faith that right makes might, and, in 

that faith, let us to the end dare to do our duty as 
we understand it. — Lincoln. 

18. Some temptations come to the industrious; but all 

temptations attack the idle. — C. H. Spurgeon. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 33 

19. Look not mournfully into the Past; it comes not back 

ag-ain. Wisely improve the Present; it is thine. 
Go forth to meet the shadowy Future, without fear, 
and with a manly heart. — Longfellow. 

20. Lord of the Universe, shield us and guide us, 

Trusting Thee always through shadow and sun ! 
Thou hast united us, who shall divide us ? 
Keep us, oh keep us, the Many in One. 

— Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

72. Grading. — The purpose of grading comprehends the wel- 
fare of the school, the teacher and the pupil. For the school, 
grading is required as a means of adjusting work in the 
organization or the system. For the teacher, grading estab- 
lishes a limit for the scope of the teaching. For the pupil, 
grading is intended as adaptation so that a maximum of 
progress may be guaranteed. The defects to be avoided are 
too rapid advancement, tardy advancement, and rigid systems 
not permitting adaptation to the needs of the pupil. 

73. Promotion. — Two aims in promotion are to advance 
pupils as rapidly as their attainments will permit, and to 
maintain a standard of approximate uniformity of attainment 
in the grade. Further consideration will be found in the next 
ten sections. 

74. Class teaching.— In our elementary grades there is much 
discussion about the relative merits of individual and class 
teaching; about the effectiveness of group teaching; about the 
practical application of the Batavia plan and its usefulness in 
solving the difficulties of promotion; and, lastly, about the 
separation and the special methods of instructing defective 
children. This section is inserted here to direct the attention 
of teachers to these topics. During any recitation period, is 
the class taught as one unified grade capable of understanding 
the teacher's presentation? Or, must each class be divided 
into groups and each group taught separately? Or, must a 
certain amount of individual teaching be done ? Take in- 



34 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

dividual and class instruction, for instance, and you will find 
that some educators say that the one cannot exist without the 
other, and that there are no serious difficulties arising under 
either if the teacher satisfies the ordinary conditions of teach- 
ing. This is a suggestive topic for our students and we offer 
as a point of view that no matter how good the teaching may 
be, there will be some pupils who will present the necessity of 
individual instruction, either in or out of class. 

75. Group teaching. — Group teaching is not new, although it 
is so considered by some educators. It means nothing more 
than dividing the class into groups, according to ability, so 
that three groups, for example, shall be working on three 
respective kinds of assignment at the same time during one 
period. The teacher may be giving oral instruction to one 
group, while the other two are engaged in written exercises. 
This plan promotes adaptation of matter to the needs of the 
pupils, and so it becomes only a special illustration of one of 
the many characteristics of good teaching. 

The arguments in favor of the group system are summarized 
by Dr. Maxwell : 

1. It is now in general use in other cities — a strong 

presumption in its favor. 

2. A teacher having, say, only IS pupils out of 45 

recite to her at one time is better able to dis- 
tinguish the individual peculiarities of each 
pupil. 

3. The teacher being compelled to divide the recita- 

tion for each subject into three periods is 
constrained to conduct the recitation in a 
vigorous manner. She is forced to avoid the 
two most serious errors into which teachers 
fall in the conduct of a recitation: requiring 
children to recite verbatim, and talking too 
much themselves. 

4. Each pupil has abundant time in which to study 

in school. Complaints of overwork and exces- 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 35 

sive home study have practically disappeared 
wherever the group system is adopted. 

5. The pupil learns not only to study, but to inhibit 

and concentrate his attention— an invaluable 
experience for practical life. 

6. A pupil may be promoted just as fast or just as 

slowly as he ought to advance. A pupil may 
be advanced from one group to another group 
within a grade; or promoted from one grade to 
another at any time in the term, without 
skipping any essential part of the work. 

One division should always be composed of 
pupils advancing more rapidly than those in 
the other, so that the teacher will not be com- 
pelled to repeat the same lesson on the same 
day. 

The difficulty is to find profitable employment 
for the section or sections not having the oral 
lessons. Many teachers cannot teach unless 
every child's eyes are fixed on them. They 
cannot see that more than a minute of this kind 
of so-called attention is bad for the child. 
Some teachers find the system hard because 
they give three-fourths of their attention to the 
groups not reciting, trying to keep them "in 
order" and not realizing that more freedom 
should be allowed children who are working 
by themselves as individuals. Some teachers 
believe that we divide classes only because the 
children have different attainments. They do 
not understand that we divide classes in order 
that the nervous strain on the children may be 
lessened, that they may feel that they are 
individuals, that they must not waste their time 
waiting for fifty to get a chance to read aloud 
or to spell or to compute, and that they may 
have time to study. 



36 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

76. Individual teaching. — No matter what devices or methods 
or novelties may be advocated, the process of true teaching- 
remains a personal relation between the teacher and individual 
pupils. The most successful class or g-roup teaching- is that 
in which the individuals in the class or g-roup are able to put 
their minds into sympathetic communication with the teacher's 
mind, or vice versa. When the successful pupils have passed 
along with the satisfaction of a g-ood degree of mastery, slow 
or defective pupils remain for individual teaching- to give them 
the right of promotion. When any pupil fails to understand 
the instruction, when disorder interferes with the smooth 
course of teaching, when illness or other valid excuse causes 
absence, then there must be a personal meeting of the minds 
of teacher and pupil to restore conditions to a normal standard 
of efficiency. So under all circumstances it is safe to argue 
that individual teaching is the largest factor in the school 
educatiorr. 

77. The Batavia plan. — The Batavia plan derives its name 
from Batavia, N. Y., where it was devised and put into suc- 
cessful operation by Superintendent John Kennedy. This 
plan of teaching combines the best features of class instruction, 
group teaching, and individual teaching. The classes are 
divided into groups according to ability and two teachers are 
at work at the same time in the same room. One teacher is 
carrying on the regular work of the grade with the larger part 
of the class, while the additional teacher is instructing one or 
more of the backward pupils. As soon as any pupil is capable 
of doing the next grade work, a promotion is made no matter 
what time of the term it may be. This plan of promotion is 
used all through the elementary schools, and it is found that 
most of the defects in the ordinary systems of grading and pro- 
motion have been overcome in the schools of Batavia. Attention 
is directed to the special value of the individual instruction 
under the Batavia plan. For further discussion, see page 153 
in McEvoy's Science of Education. 



SCHOOL MANAGKMENT 37 

78. Examinations. — This topic relates to the examination of 
pupils although there is equal interest in the nature of ex- 
aminations prescribed for teachers. For those who are inter- 
ested in the latter phase of this topic we refer to pages 113-120 
in McEvoy's Science of Education. A point of view for con- 
sidering the examination of pupils may be clearly presented 
in the form of an outline. 

I. Methods of conducting examinations. 

1. By written tests. 

2. By oral tests. 

3. By combination of 1 and 2. 

II. Advantages of written tests. 

1. Self-realization, independence. 

2. Habits of industry in preparation. 

3. Basis of comparative valuation from time to time. 

4. Apperception, composition, correlation. 

III. Disadvantages of written tests. 

1. Not an accurate index of psychical progress. 

Other conditions — nervousness, lack of facility 
in expression, etc. — are too strong. 

2. Too much time required from pupils and, later, 

from teachers. 

3. Cramming. 

4. Mental deceit : words vs. content. 

IV. Advantages of oral examinations. 

1. Time saved. 

2. Personality of pupil and teacher united — real 

teaching. 

3. Practical preparation for life. Oral expression, 

prompt decision, co-ordination of mental 
powers. Habit. 

4. Attention and interest. 

5. Adapted to individual needs. 

V. Disadvantages of oral examinations. 

1. Time lost unless teacher is apt. 



38 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

2. Effects are transitory. 

3. Tends to g-uessing-. 

4. Does not sustain class concentration. 

79, Reviews. — The lack of systematic and thorough reviews 
is one of the most serious defects in modern education. In their 
anxiety to cover the prescribed work, teachers devote most of 
the time to the presentation of new matter and then pupils are 
expected to do the extra review and drill work outside of the 
recitation period. A safer plan is to devote at least two-thirds 
of the school time to drill or review work; the other one-third 
will be sufficient for presenting the advanced lessons. The 
g-eneral characteristics of reviews may be considered under 
the headings in the outlines given in the last section. 

80. Home lessons. — It is said that there are five institutional 
factors in education: the home, the school, the church, the 
state, and the vocation. The eifort to make the home and the 
school harmonize in relation to lessons assigned in school to 
be mastered at home, is one unsettled problem in elementary 
and high school work. Many parents object to the assig-nment 
of home work on the grounds (a) that it is shifting responsi- 
bility from the teacher to the parent, and (b) that overwork is 
likely to produce fatigue. The teachers, on the other hand, 
answer (a) that the school hours do not give time to cover the 
required work, and (b) that the habit of independent work is 
essential in the education of the pupil.. For convenience in 
presenting a liberal view, both affirmative and negative, an 
outline is submitted. 

I. Advantages. 

1. Habits : obedience, industry, self-activity. 

2. Criterion : honest work is an index of pupil's 

power. 

3. Co-operation : parents become interested. 

4. Review : valuable impression and expression of 

recitation work. 

5. Protection: keeps pupils at home. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 39 

II. Disadvantag-es. 

1. Habits : incorrect work bad in effect. 

2. Not a criterion : too much dishonesty. 

3. Friction : some parents disapprove. 

4. Fatigue : due to overpressure. 

5. Recreation : pupils need outdoor exercise. 

81. Questioning. — The attempt to classify questions under 
the headings development, drill, review, examination, etc. is 
putting- considerable value upon external form again. There 
are dift'erences, of course, but the tactful teacher may use all 
these kinds of questions in any one lesson, even though the 
lesson is strictly a development lesson. If sound methods of 
teaching- must alw^ays depend upon three factors — teacher, 
lesson, pupil — then sound questioning- depends upon these 
same three factors, and the teacher will adapt the questions 
to the needs of the children. 

A few rules for questioning will not be out of place. They 
may be stated as positive or neg-ative rules. 

I. Positive rules. 

1. Questions should be adapted to the powers of the 

pupils. 

2. The wording- of the question should be simple, 

clear, specific. This rule is opposed to puzzles, 
vag-ue questions, double questions, universal 
questions. 

3. The order of the questions should be determined 

by the law of successive clearness. Questions 
log-ically arrang-ed are not always suited to the 
child's mind. Question to promote prog-ressive 
clearness in the child's thinking-. 

4. Make the question as short as clearness will 

permit. 

5. Question to impress what the children know, not 

what they don't know. 



40 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

II. Neg-ative rules. 

1. Do not end a question with what. 

2. Do not ask questions that allow a choice of 

answers. 

3. As a general rule, do not ask questions that can 

be answered by yes or no. 

4. Do not ask a question that sug-gests the answer. 

5. Do not abuse the use of personal pronouns in 

questions. 

III. Weak questioning-. Some questions to be avoided may 

illustrate the rules under I and II. 

1. Vag-ue questions. How was the battle of Gettys- 

burg- fought ? 

2. General questions. What do you think I saw on 

my way to school ? 

3. Obscure questions. Can you comprehend the 

complexity of civilization ? 

4. Double questions. Where was Taft born and 

what service did he render in the Philippines? 

5. Universal questions, similar to general questions. 

Where is London ? 

6. Involved questions. Considering the facts in the 

Missouri Compromise, can you, a student of 
modern civic problems, trace the results in 
relation to the principal causes ? 

7. Direct questions. Was Burgoyne successful at 

Saratoga ? 

Three general classes of questions are frequently called for 
on examinations, namely, consecutive, promiscuous and simul- 
taneous. Consecutive questioning follows the order of seating 
or roll ; promiscuous questioning calls on individuals not in 
the order of seating or roll ; simultaneous questions are 
directed to the whole class, usually for concert answers. For 
advantages and disadvantages, see 523. 

The difference between development questions and review 
questions is another examination topic. Development ques- 



SCHOOL MANAGEME,^;T 41 

tions require more time in asking- and answering-; the order is 
g-enerally log-ical ; the answers are in complete statements. 
Review questions are rapid ; not necessarily in logical order ; 
answers may be brief. 

82. Answers. — The kind of answers g-iven by pupils will de- 
pend larg-ely upon the nature of the questions asked by the 
teacher. When all the conditions are adjusted to insure a fair 
amount of effort, the answ^ers are indication of intellectual 
prog-ress. We shall discuss this topic under four heading-s. 

1. The educational value of answers. The test can 

be found in the methods of mind training 
treated in Chapter IV. A good answer is evi- 
dence of clear percepts, serviceable memory, 
good concepts and some application of judg- 
ment and reasoning. Furthermore, a good 
answer is evidence of attention; it may indicate 
interest; it must utilize apperception; and it re- 
quires self-activity. One good answer is 
the beginning of habituation. Other good 
answers will, of course, tend to fix desirable 
habits of mental activity. 

2. Characteristics of good answers. From what 

has just been said it is evident that a good 
answer requires the child to do some thinking. 
He must think to get a correct interpretation 
of the teacher's question and he must think 
again to furnish material for his own answer. 
Then follows another quality, namely, the use 
of good language in clearly expressing the 
answer. 

3. What answers should be received. First, the 

good answers just characterized; second, 
answers which are partially correct providing 
there can be a division made in the answer 
required. This view is the one that gives 



42 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

credit for all that the pupil is able to do. The 
third kind of answer to be accepted is the one 
that is evidence of fidelity on the part of the 
pupil. The answer may not be correct but 
the effort to make a correct answer deserves 
some commendation. Strictly speaking-, a cor- 
rect answer is the only one that can' receive full 
credit in the recitation, but as the process of 
teaching- does not expect a satisfactory answer 
to every question, it is sug-g-ested that the other 
two kinds of answers receive some credit as the 
means of encouraging- the pupils. 

4. What answers should be rejected. Dishonest 
answers, g-uesses and careless answers should 
not be accepted. They may satisfy certain 
standards of marking- but they are not edu- 
cative. Dishonesty may be due to laziness; 
or it may be a kind of unconscious development 
in schools where per cents have been used as 
the g-oal of education. In all these cases, re- 
quire the pupil to work toward the desired 
answers. This is the only positive cure. A 
negative treatment may place a zero upon 
the register, but a zero does little or nothing 
to direct the average pupil into habits of use- 
ful effort. 

83. Moral education. — Sections 83 to 94 inclusive are taken 
verbatim from the 1905 course of study for new York City. 

"It should be the aim of teachers and principals to make the 
life of the school, in every activity and relation, count for moral 
education. This aim should vitally affect not only the teach- 
ing of every subject and the treatment of every problem of 
discipline and training, but also the general atmosphere and 
spirit of the classroom and of the school. In working toward 
this aim, the following suggestions will be found helpful : 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 43 

84. Personality of teacher. — The personality of the teacher is 
at the root of all moral education in the school. The teacher's 
voice, speech, bearing, and dress; the teacher's poise, self- 
control, courtesy, kindness; the teacher's'sincerity, ideals, and 
attitude toward life, are invariably reflected in the character 
of his pupils. 

85. Reverence. — Reverence is vital to morality. Whatever 
quickens in children the feeling- of dependence on a Hig-her 
Power; whatever leads them devoutly to wonder at the order, 
beauty, or mystery of the universe; whatever arouses in them 
the sentiment of worship or fills them with admiration of true 
greatness, promotes reverence. There is no subject studied in 
school which, reverently taught, may not yield its contribu- 
tion to this sentiment. 

86. Self-respect. — Self-respect, which is also fundamental to 
moral development, is engendered in a child when he does his 
best at tasks that are worth while and within his power to do 
well, with proper recognition by teacher and schoolfellows of 
work well done. 

87. Principle in character. — The cornerstone of a self-respect- 
ing character is principle— the will to be true to the right 
because it is right, whatever the consequences, to act 'with 
firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right.' The 
essential difference between principle and mere self-interest 
should be vividly brought home to each child. 

88. Spirit of school.— The spirit of the classroom and of the 
school — the spirit that makes children say with pride 'my 
class' and 'our school' — is one of the strongest of moral 
forces. Where there exists a proper esprit de corps, the problem 
of discipline is largely solved. Public opinion as a moral 
force should be moulded and utilized in every school. 

89. Social membership.— The child should early gain the 
idea of social membership. The truth that co-operation and 
unselfishness are essential to true social living should be made 
real and vital. This truth is brought home through 'group 



44 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

work' where the work of each is necessary to the work of all; 
and through the feeling in a school or class that the honor of 
all is in the keeping of each. 

The child should also learn that he is a member, not only 
of the school, but of the family, of the neighborhood, of the city, 
and of the state and nation. What it means to be a loyal 
member of these social institutions should be made clear. The 
naturalness and the necessity of obedience and of helpfulness 
should be shown. The moral aspect of home tasks, and of 
working with the departments of health, parks, street cleaning, 
police, and education, and not against them, should be enforced 
by concrete applications. In general, the truth should be 
impressed that without loyal and effective social membership 
no individual can lead a complete life. 

90. Self-government. — No person has a fully developed moral 
character until there has been a transfer of the seat of author- 
ity from without to within himself; a moral man obeys himself. 
Each child in every grade should be steadily helped towards 
self-direction and self-government. Effective means to this end 
are : appeals to initiative and resourcefulness; the development 
of such a sense of honor as will preserve order without sur- 
veillance; and some form of organization designed to quicken- 
and exercise the sense of responsibility. To trust a child 
tends to make him trustworthy. A system of pupil self- 
government, if wisely applied and not encumbered with un- 
necessary machinery, may be found effective. The form, 
however, of the organization is immaterial. The essential 
point is that the teacher, himself a member of the community, 
should make his pupils sharers to a certain extent in the 
problems arising out of their community life; and that he 
should entrust to them as members in their own right of the 
social body the performance of certain functions. Such train- 
ing in social activity is effective training for citizenship. 
Under such conditions 'good order' will mean not so much 
the refraining from disorder as the condition of effective 
co-operation. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 45 

91. Moral values of studies. — Each school study has a specific 
moral value. Literature and history embody in concrete form 
moral facts and principles, showing- to the child his own self 
'writ larg-e,' furnishing- him with ideals and incentives, and 
moulding- his moral judgment; and they will accomplish these 
results the more surely as the teacher is himself moved by that 
which is presented. Every subject involving- observation and 
expression is essentially moral. Every subject, therefore, 
should be so taught as to make for truth-telling in word and 
act, and for training in self-expression. 

92. Contemporary civilization.— In connection with the regular 
studies of the school, such aspects of contemporary civilization 
as are of value for developing the social spirit should receive 
attention. Hospitals, societies for the prevention of cruelty to 
children and to animals, homes for orphans and for the aged 
and infirm, fresh air funds, and similar agencies for social 
service should be brought within the child's comprehension as 
opportunity offers. Deeds of heroism and self-sacrifice done 
by firemen, policemen, soldiers, and other persons, should be 
presented and commended. The truth that success in life 
means more than mere money-getting can thus be brought 
home again and again. The contemplation of deeds of cruelty, 
dishonor, and shame has a necessary, though subordinate, 
place in moulding moral taste. 

93. Topics for moral lessons. — The following list* of topics 
affords subjects for many practical lessons in morals and 
manners : 

1. Duties to parents, brothers, sisters, and play- 

mates; to servants and other employees; to 
employers and all in authority; to the aged, 
the poor, and the unfortunate. 

2. Conduct at home, at the table, at school, on the 

street, in public assemblies and in public con- 
veyances. 



46 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

3. The common virtues, such as regularity, punc- 
tuality, self-control, cheerfulness, neatness, 
purity, temperance, honesty, truthfulness, 
obedience, industry, and patriotism. 
94. Principles of moral instruction. — In all such moral instruc- 
tion and guidance the following principles should be observed: 

1. The course of moral training is a development, 

in which the child is first led to act rightly 
and afterward to work from principle; he pro- 
ceeds from obedience on faith to obedience on 
principle; from regularity to faithfulness. 
The child also develops from egoism to al- 
truism. His impulse toward self-interest 
normally develops earlier than his impulse 
to put himself in another's place. Upon the 
full development of the former stage depends 
the full development of the latter. 

2. The culture of the imagination is a powerful aid 

in moral instruction; first, as the power vividly 
to picture consequences — to put yourself in 
your own place later on (foresight); secondly, 
as the power to 'put yourself in his place' 
(social imagination, sympathy). 

3. In using literature and similar material for 

purposes of moral education, the teacher should 
not violate the law of self-activity. The child 
may resent having a moral drawn for him 
which he can draw for himself. He is the more 
likely to follow the principle which he himself 
discovers or formulates because it is his own. 

4. The most effective method in moral education is 

positive rather than negative. A mind filled 
with worthy interests, high ideals, and helpful 
activities has no room for evil. Approbation 
more than censure leads to well doing. Love 
is a stronger and a better motive than fear. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 47 

5. At every stage of school life pupils should be 
taug-ht that they live under inexorable law^s 
which they cannot violate w^ith impunity — both 
physical law^s and moral law^s. Obedience is 
not optional: it is compulsory. Penalty fol- 
low^s law-breaking as surely as night follows 
day, though the penalty is not always im- 
mediate." 

95. Discipline. — Discipline in school management has refer- 
ence to mental, moral and physical training that tends to 
secure the self-control of individuals. The general use of the 
term discipline in regard to human faculties means training 
that enables a faculty to do more efficient work than it would 
have been able to accomplish without the discipline. So in a 
larger sense disciplinary school management aims to develop 
all the useful characteristics of good citizenship. 

96. Authority. — There are writers and teachers who hold 
that respect for authority is not an American ideal. We do 
not agree. Constituted authority, wherever it may be, deserves 
constant recognition and respectful obedience. Authority is 
not tyranny; it is a natural and necessary guarantee of order 
in moral, religious and civil life. The largest development of 
individual freedom is impossible without some accepted stand- 
ard of authority. Pupils should be taught, then, that it is 
their duty to respect and obey the authority in the school, in 
the home, and in the community. 

97. Co-operation of parents. — In another section of this chap- 
ter, we have spoken of the five institutional factors in education. 
One aim of ideal training must always be to get those five 
factors into harmonious co-operation. It is not always possible 
to secure such assistance outside of the home, but it is pos- 
sible to bring the parents into close touch with the actual needs 
of the school. This may be done by correspondence if it is not 
convenient to have personal consultations in the homes of the 
pupils. A visit has many advantages over correspondence 



48 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

because it is possible for pupils, teachers and parents to meet 
in common and establish a balance of opinions relating- to the 
favorable and the unfavorable w^ork in the school. A third 
means of g-etting- into touch with parents is patriotic exercises 
or other school entertainments. The natural interest in the 
welfare of the pupils on such occasions is the strongest in- 
ducement to parents to present themselves at the place where 
the entertainment is held. Other means of becoming- acquainted 
are found in churches, local societies, and other established 
means of social intercourse in the community. 

98. Punishment defined. — Punishment is a penalty for the 
violation of the rules of order. The old idea of punishment 
embodied the necessity of giving the pupils an equivalent for 
the wrong that had been done. The modern view of punish- 
ment looks to the reform of the pupils through the cultivation 
of desirable habits of activity. 

99. Kinds of punishment. — Corporal punishment is forbidden 
in most of the schools and so it is necessary for the teacher to 
find some substitute that possesses deterrent and corrective 
merits. The following are approved : 

1. Detention. The practice of keeping pupils in 
the schoolroom at recess, during part of the 
noon or after school, has the approval of many 
educators although it is severely condemned 
by others. The loss of pleasure seems to be 
the basis of the punishment. One serious ob- 
jection to detention is on the physical side. 
If the pupils were allowed the privileges of 
physical exercise during the recess periods, it 
is probable that some of the sourjces of disorder 
would find a natural outlet in the games. 
The pupil who is detained is not likely to be 
in a frame of mind suitable for continuing the 
work of the day after his companions return 
to the classroom. For these reasons detention 
cannot be widely approved as a form of punish- 
ment. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 49 

2. Assig-nment of extra tasks. The aim of this 

kind of punishment seems to be the develop- 
ment of intellectual power throug^h the extra 
work. It is implied that the mental training- 
will ultimately direct the child into points of 
view that will cause him to desist from further 
wrong-doing-. On the other hand, the imposi- 
tion to extra school work is likely to lead the 
the child to dislike that kind of work and also 
to form habits of carelessness in performing- 
the assignment. 

3. Demerit marks. This penalty assumes that 

pupils are ambitious to secure high standing-s 
as an indication of proficiency. Some pupils 
do have such ambitions but their ambitions 
are easily crushed as soon as one demerit 
mark appears upon the record. Other pupils 
care nothing- for marks of that kind and so the 
punishment is wholly external and has little 
or no effect upon them. 

4. Expulsion. — This should be used only as an 

extreme means of settling the difificulty. Ex- 
pulsion is justified only when the pupil reaches 
a state of rebellion which cannot be treated 
without an injury to the class or to the school. 
Then it is considered prudent to remove the 
pupil from the presence of his companions. 
An adverse view of expulsion lies in the fact 
that the child expelled is to be at liberty in the 
community and his idleness is likely to lead 
to the development of bad habits. The rela- 
tion of idleness and crime shows the futility 
of expulsion as a form of punishment in any 
community. 
100. Incentives. — The ordinary incentives are marks for 
scholarship or gonduct, prizes, decorations, school privileges. 



so METHODS IN EDUCATION 

and public commendation. Some of these are forbidden in 
certain school systems because of the difficulty in doing justice 
in selecting- the best pupils, or because such distinction tends 
to develop eg-otism and selfishness in place of altruistic 
virtues. These incentives are called artificial. 

In contrast to the artificial incentives are the natural in- 
centives. The latter are respect for teacher, respect of class, 
school spirit, sharing- school privileges, and personal satisfac- 
tion in doing one's duty. These are natural because they are 
human. Each incentive develops a stronger feeling between 
the pupil and some other member of the school. The benefit 
is the consciousness of personal power growing out of self- 
activity. Notice how the community interest promotes atten- 
tion, interest and activity. 

101. Self-government of pupils. — All education aims at self- 
government of the pupils. The specific use of the word here 
relates to the various forms of pupil government, in which the 
pupils themselves participate in the legislative, the executive 
and the judicial departments of school organization. In each 
system of this kind, the government is a republic. The School 
City and the School State are common forms. The former is 
discussed on pages 157 to 161 in McEvoy's Science of Educa- 
tion. 

102. Public opinion in school. — Disorder in school is sure to 
arise if confidence is not established in the motives of the 
teacher and of the pupils. It is a mistake for a teacher to 
think that a large number of pupils like to do wrong; and it 
is unfortunate for pupils if they cannot consider their teacher 
a friend. The establishment of mutual confidence, the pleasure 
of morning exercises, the satisfaction of success in the studies, 
the interest in rhetorical exercises, and the fellowship of the 
school grounds and the afternoon walks, — all these will tend 
to develop a healthy public opinion in school. 

103. Evils. — Such school evils as carelessness, laziness, 
tardiness, truancy, whispering, lying, cheating, stealing, 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 51 

impudence and rebellion should be displaced by desirable 
habits. Repression is only a temporary suspense ; substitu- 
tion is the sound process. 

104. Virtues. — The desirable habits to be substituted in 
section 103 are accuracy, industry, neatness, politeness, 
truthfulness, honesty, justice, punctuality, co-operation, and 
obedience. The substitution is a matter of gradual habitua- 
tion. 

105. Affiliated interests. — In speaking- of natural incentives 
in 100, we referred to the sharing of school privileges. Such 
privileges are found in the affiliated interests which serve as 
useful means of education in addition to the work of the recita- 
tion. The various athletic interests, the debating clubs, the 
school paper, the musical and dramatic associations and the 
alumni associations are all helpful in keeping a strong school 
spirit. 

106. Adolescence. — Independence is a mental characteristic 
of adolescents. Management during this period is guidance. 
Follow these suggestions : 

1. Environment must be adapted to pupil rather 

than vice versa. 

2. Physical health is a predominant consideration. 

3. Pupils need direction and inspiration rather 

than ponderous knowledge. 
Adolescence is treated in Science of Education, pp. 92 to 105. 

107. Fatigue. — During adolescence growth is so rapid that 
strength is not constant. In younger children, fatigue is pro- 
duced by other causes. So far as fatigue relates to manage- 
ment, it shows the necessity for finding and removing physical 
causes of disorder. For general relation to education, see 
Science of Education, 339, 353-364. 

108. Devices in management. 

I. Use quotations. See Our Platform, section 71. 



52 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

II. Ask pupil to write an opinion of his own case. Fur- 
nish two or three questions to guide him. 
Assign to be done at home. This causes intro- 
spection. 

III. Have pupils write a letter of advice to themselves. 

They will unconsciously expose their own 
weaknesses. This aid will show what treat- 
ment is best. 

IV. Teachers and pupils need to understand one another. 

An effort in this line, some years ago, secured 
the written opinions of teachers, pupils and 
supervisors. Here we give the teachers' opin- 
ions of the pupils ; in V, the pupils' opinions 
of the teachers; and in VI, the critics' sug- 
gestions. 
Two kinds of obstacles are found, those in the pupils 
and those in the teachers. First, note the 
difficulties in the pupils. 

1. Inattention but not positive disorder. 

2. Lack of enthusiasm and ambition. 

3. Failure to hand in work on time. 

4. Lack of knowledge of how to study without aid. 

5. Talking without permission, restlessness, ask- 

ing unnecessary questions. 

6. Inaccuracy in operation; lack of knowledge of 

work passed over. 

7. Laziness, slovenly work, lack of thoroughness, 

too easily satisfied. 

8. Feeling that teachers are only practicing on 

them. 

9. Desire for something new. Nothing appears 

original to them. 

10. "Lack of power to do independent thinking. 
They want some one to develop everything, 
^nd they cannot understand a question if it is 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 53 

put in a different form from that to which they 
are accustomed. ' ' 
Many teachers found the greatest obstacles in 
themselves, and so they administered self- 
criticism in a spirit of fairness and frankness. 
Following- are their points of weakness: 

1. Lack of self-confidence and self-control. 

2. Talking- too loud and thereby g-iving- a cause for 

restlessness. 

3. Inability to think while standing- before the class. 

4. Cannot become acquainted with pupils in so 

short a time. 

5. Inability to locate source of disorder; difficulty 

in deciding- what to do when disorder arises. 

6. Difficulty in securing- attention. 

7. Lack of decision and determination and con- 

sequent failure to make pupils obey promptly. 

8. Too easily discourag-ed when practice does not 

harmonize with theory. 

9. Failure to satisfy the children's needs on ac- 

count of not understanding the condition of the 
pupils' minds. 
V. The pupils' opinions. 

1. The discipline of the school depends upon how 

the teacher acts the first day. The pupils 
will try her to see how much she will stand. 
If she does not have order the first day, I fear 
she never will. Some teachers never smile, 
and they are the kind the pupils don't like. 

2. Some teachers don't inspire confidence in the 

pupils, and some try to show their authority 
too much. 

3. Many pupils do not realize their responsibility 

in their school life. 

4. If some teachers would act more and talk less 

there would be better discipline. 



54 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

5. A teacher may be pleasant and strict at the same 

time. 

6. Some teachers will hardly speak to their pupils 

outside of class. 

7. Some teachers do not win the respect of the 

pupils, and so the pupils do not honor them. 

8. Some teachers are too cross and so the pupils 

become restless; other teachers are not cross 
enough. 

9. The teachers do not study the pupils enough to 

know how to manage them. 

10. Some teachers do not have self-government, — 

they laugh too much. Others lose their temper 
too often. 

11. Many teachers think that if part of the class is 

paying attention they will not take time to 
speak to the others. 

12. If they keep a pupil after school, they suffer as 

much as the pupil does. 

13. The recitations drag, making the lesson unin- 

teresting ; and if the pupils do not give their 
attention to the lesson, they do give it to some- 
thing else. 

14. Do not show the pupil that you are afraid of him. 

15. Do not allow pupils to talk back. 

16. One teacher is always making threats that if we 

do such-and-such a thing she will do so-and-so; 
but she never keeps her promise and therefore 
we do not pay any attention to her. She said 
she would mark off 25 per cent the next time 
we whispered, and when the time came she 
said, "You remember what I told you." Of 
course we remembered. 

17. Some pupils do not care to have school go pleas- 

antly. I notice if one pupil sets a good 
example, the rest generally follow. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 55 

18. No two pupils have dispositions alike, and there- 
fore it is hard for the teacher to manag-e the 
whole class. 
VI. The critics' suggestions. 

1. Make the work interesting-. 

2. Personal enthusiasm. 

3. Study with pupils to show them how to prepare 

their lessons. 

4. Assign special work to pupils who do not give 

their best effort. 

5. Act more quickly and see all that is going on. 

6. Use thought questions. 

7. Give extra help to weak pupils and personal at- 

tention to disorderly ones. 



Chapter VII. Methods of Teaching. 

109. Definition. — Method is an orderly procedure in educa- 
tion. This procedure is determined by the capacities of the 
pupils, by the subject-matter, and by the teacher. Methods 
include all plans and devices that tend to satisfy the principles 
of education. 

110. Classification. — Most writers wish to classify methods 
according- to (1) subject-matter, (2) the learner, (3) the teacher. 
We shall do so to avoid confusion, but students should remem- 
ber that all three of these factors must be considered in deter- 
mining sound methods. 

I. FROM VIEW POINT OF TEACHER. 

111. Conversational method. — This method is a natural in- 
tercourse between teachers and pupils. While its use is 
generally restricted to lower primary g-rades, it may be used 
in higher work. Its success depends largely upon the person- 
ality of the teacher. Speaking- in ordinary tones is an indica- 
tion of natural poise, and pupils will gladly adapt themselves 
to similar phases of thinking- and doing-. It is a method that 
inspires confidence, invites co-operation, and makes the 
educative process a matter of personal communication between 
teacher and pupil. It was the method of Pestalozzi, Froebel, 
and Col. Parker. Sometimes called a dialogue method. 

112. Development method. — This is another dialogue method 
whose use extends over the whole field of education. It is 
especially adapted to early information lessons which aim at 
clear concepts and easy expression. Its aim is to develop 
right habits of thinking; and by the use of suitable material, 
the child's interest is aroused so that the matter, the method 
and the result have educative value. A further study of 
methods will show that this method really includes many 



METHODS OF TEACHING 57 

others, such as, particular to g-eneral, known to related un- 
known, inductive-deductive, etc. You will see that these 
methods shade into one another; they are not so many distinct 
methods. 

Caution. — Do not try to develop everything-. If pupils g-ive 
you the answer before you are half way along- in your place of 
development, don't deaden their interest or waste your time by 
completing the developing process on that lesson. 

113. Lecture method. — This is useful in intermediate and 
higher grades, especially where the matter is brought up for 
discussion and other reproduction in succeeding recitations. 
A kind of lecture or monologue method is required in all pri- 
mary classes before text-books are introduced. Narration, 
description, explanation and definition are given by the teacher 
as models for imitation and reproduction. But let it be un- 
derstood that the lecture method, strictly interpreted as a 
lecture, is suited only to mature minds. 

114. Questioning method. — This method may form a part of 
any other method or it may be used alone, chiefly for the pur- 
pose of examination. For further discussion see 81. 

115. Socratic method. — This method is a specific kind of 
questioning. As used by Socrates, it was conversational in 
tone. He elicited statements from others by two kinds of ques- 
tions : one to convince of error; the other to develop truth. 
Socrates was questioning the Sophists who assumed to be 
masters of all knowledge and so the first part of the Socratic 
process was destructive and ironical. Its purpose was to 
overthrow and ridicule the wrong opinion held by the pupil. 
The second part of the process was directing the mind by its 
own activity toward the truth, and preparing the mind to re- 
cognize and accept the truth. 

Value.— The Socratic method accepts the pupil's point of 
view in thought and language; it keeps within the scope of the 
pupil's comprehension; every movement in thought necessitates 
self-activity of the pupil; it leads into a discovery of new view- 



58 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

point, but it does not tell; it leaves the pupil at the threshold 
of truth but does not force him to accept it. It is conviction 
through directed activity. Sometimes called maieutic, i. e., 
giving- birth to ideas. 

Caution. — Irony cannot be safely used in teaching. En- 
couragement, not sarcasm, is what the average pupil needs. 

Limitations. — The Socratic method is adapted to all knowl- 
edge in which the pupil's experience is sufficient to enable 
him to reach the truth. Beyond this limit, it is not useful. 

116. Illustration of Socratic questioning in grammar. — Take a 
familiar answer in sixth grade grammar, using this sentence : 
Lincoln was very kind to children. Teacher asks a class to 
tell part of speech of every word in the sentence. A pupil says 
very is an adjective. 

T. You say very is an adjective. 

P. Yes, very is an adjective. 

T. Why do you call very an adjective ? 

P. Because very modifies an adjective. 

T. What adjective does very modify ? 

P. Very modifies the adjective kind. 

T. You have told me the use of the word very. After 

finding the use what led you to say adjective ? 
P. I thought of the definition of an adjective. 
T. Give that definition. 
P. Anything that modifies a noun or a pronoun is an 

adjective. 
T. What noun or pronoun does very modify? 
P. No noun or pronoun. Kind is an adjective. 
T. Now, what is your conclusion ? 
P. Very is not an adjective. 
T. Then what part of speech is it ? 
P. Anything that modifies an adjective must be an 

adverb; hence, very is an adverb. 

117. Illustration in mathematics. — Another illustration of the 
Socratic method is found in Plato's Dialogues, Jowett's trans- 



METHODS OF TEACHING 59 

lation. Meno, a disciple of Socrates, has criticised Socrates 
for the negative character of Socratic instruction. 

"Why, Socrates," said Meno, "you remind me of that broad 
sea- fish called the torpedo, which produces a numbness in the 
person who approaches and touches it. For, in truth, I seem 
benumbed both in mind and mouth, and know not what to 
reply to you, and yet I have often spoken on this subject with 
great fluency and success." 

In reply Socrates applies his teaching- by g-iving- a lesson to 
a boy who is an illiterate slave. 

Soc. "Tell me, boy, do you know that a fig-ure like 

this is a square? 
Boy. I do. 
Soc. And do you know that a square fig-ure has these 

four lines equal ? 
Boy. Certainly. 
Soc. And these lines which I have drawn throug-h the 

middle of the square are also equal ? 
Boy. Yes. 

Soc. A square may be of any size? 
Boy. Certainly. 

Soc. And if one side of the square be of two feet and 
the other side be of two feet, how much will 
the whole be? Let me explain: If in one di- 
rection, the space was of two feet and in the 
other of one foot, the whole would be of two 
feet taken once? 
Boy. Yes. 
Soc. But since this side is also of two feet, there are 

twice two feet? 
Boy. There are. 

Soc. Then the square is of twice two feet ? 
Boy. Yes. 
Soc. And how many are twice two feet? Count and 

tell me. 
Boy. Four, Socrates. 



60 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Soc. And tnig-ht there not be another square twice as 
larg-e as this, and having-, like this, the lines 
equal ? 

Boy. Yes. 

Soc. And of how many feet will that be ? 

Boy. Of eight feet. 

Soc. And now try and tell me the length of the line 
which forms the side of that double square : 
this is two feet — what will that be? 

Boy. Clearly, Socrates, that will be double. 

Soc. Do you observe, Meno, that I am not teaching- the 

boy anything, but only asking- him questions ; 

' and now he fancies that he knows how long- a 

line is necessary in order to produce a figure 

of eight square feet; does he not? 

Men. Yes. 

Soc. And does he really know ? 

Men. Certainly not. 

Soc. He only guesses that because the square is double, 
the line is double. 

Men. True. 

Soc. Observe him while he recalls the steps in regular 
order. 

(To the boy) Tell me, boy, do you assert that a double 
space comes from a double line ? Remember 
that I am not speaking of an oblong but of a 
square, and of a square twice the size of this 
one, — that is to say, of eight feet, and I want 
to know whether you still say that a double 
square comes from a double line? 

Boy. Yes. 

Soc. But does not the line become doubled if we add 
another such line here? 

Boy. Certainly. 

Soc. And four such lines will make a space containing- 
eight feet? 



METHODS OF TEACHING 61 

Boy. Yes. 

Soc. Let us describe such a fig-ure; is not that what 
you would say is the figure of eight feet? 

Boy. Yes. 

Soc. And are there not these four divisions in the figure, 
each of which is equal to the figure of four 
feet? 

Boy. True. 

Soc. And is not that four times four? 

Boy. Certainly. 

Soc. And four times is not double? 

Boy. No, indeed. 

Soc. But how much ? 

Boy. Four times as much. 

Soc. Then the line which forms the side of the square 
of eight feet ought to be more than this line of 
two feet and less than the other of four feet ? 

Boy. It ought. 

Soc. Try and see if you can tell me how much it will be. 

Boy. Three feet. 

Soc. How much are three times three feet ? 

Boy. Nine. 

Soc. And how much is the double of four ? 

Boy. Eight. 

Soc. Then the figure of eight is not made out of a line 
of three ? 

Boy. No. 

Soc. But from what line ? Tell me exactly, and if you 
would rather not reckon, point out the line. 

Boy. Indeed, Socrates, I do not know. 

Soc. Do you see, Meno, what advances he has made in 
his power of recollection ? He did not know at 
first, and he does not know now, what is the 
side of a figure of eight feet; but then he thought 
that he knew and answered confidently, as if 



62 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

he knew and had no difficulties; but now he 
has a difficulty, and neither knows nor fancies 
that he knows." 

II. FROM VIEWPOINT OF PUPIL. 

118. From the particular to the general. — It is a chief business 
of education to pass from distinctly perceived individual no- 
tions to clear general notions. — Pestalozzi. Individual notions 
are notions or ideas of individual things. Each of the five 
senses furnishes sensations which the mind may or may not 
accept. As soon as the mind considers a sensation by ex- 
amining- the object that caused the sensation, the mind gains 
a percept of that object. This percept may be considered a 
particular or individual notion. Then the memory and the 
imagination work on these percepts until the mind combines 
the percepts into a concept or general notion. 

In all early education the teacher strives to train the senses 
to see things, to observe things, so that the mind may get clear, 
accurate percepts as the foundation of knowledge. Concrete 
material in teaching is useful because the pupils can use 
more than one sense in observation. 

Illustration. — To teach the definition of a noun, write sen- 
tences on the board. 

Longfellow was a poet. 

Pupils like poems. 

Lincoln loved children. 

Do you know nouns ? 
The presentation will lead pupils to see that each name 
word in these sentences is a noun; and so from seeing partic- 
ular name words are nouns, they infer that in general name 
words are nouns. So this inductive lesson proceeds from the 
particular to the general. The same process is found in all 
elementary development lessons. 

119. Simple to complex. — The meaning of these words varies 
as individuals vary. We must take each child's point of view. 
What is simple for the teacher may be complex for the pupil. 



METHODS OF TEACHING 63 

1. In language work, the simple things are the 

things the child knows. Talk about toys, pets, 
experience. Use short, simple, familiar words. 

2. In learning numbers, the process of scoring is a 

simple way of indicating a knowledge of the 
number concept, thus: 11 for 2 or two; 111 for 
3 or three. 

3. The simple sentence is mastered before the com- 

pound or the complex. 

4. In music the natural scale is taught first. 

5. In nature study the plant as a whole is studied 

as one single, simple, living thing. Later the 
child will become familiar with the complex 
structure of the plant and the functions of its 
various parts. 

120. Concrete to abstract. — The abstract concepts cannot be 
formed without first having a concrete concept. Thus, an ab- 
stract concept of whiteness comes after associating whiteness 
with a number of white objects. Another reason for using 
objective or concrete teaching is the demand for multiple sense 
instruction. Seeing, hearing, feeling, and even tasting and 
smelling may be employed. 

1. Alphabet blocks as play in education. 

2. Warlike toys for Spartan children. 

3. Foot-rule and yard-stick in linear measure; 

gill, pint, quart and gallon measures in liquid 
measure; ratio and proportion by handling 
blocks in Speer method. 

4. Moulding- board, putty maps, relief forms and 

pictures in geography. 

5. The study of a model to get form, style and rules 

in composition. 

121. From the known to the related unknown. — A child is 
master of considerable knowledge when he enters school. 
This knowledge in possession must be used as apperceiving 



64 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

groups a^ a basis for new knowledge. The adaptation of the 
old and the new will utilize interest and attention. 

1. The schoolroom, the playground or the city may 

each or all be used in early lessons in geo- 
graphy. This plan illustrates from the parti- 
cular to the general. 

2. From knowing the agreement of subject and 

predicate, the child passes to concord of ad- 
jectives and nouns, pronouns and antecedent, 
etc. 

3. Uniiy in a sentence is a foundation for unity in 

paragraph and essay. 

4. Definition of a verb is necessary for an under- 

standing of the participle, and the nature of 
nouns and adjectives leads to the secondary 
nature of participle. 

5. The common denominator for addition of frac- 

tions opens a way to subtraction and division 
of fractions; and common fractions in general 
are a basis for decimals and percentage. 

122. Observation before reasoning; processes before rules; facts 
before definitions or principles. — These axioms are a demand for 
inductive processes in teaching. They are justified by psy- 
chology because percepts precede concepts, and definitions 
require related classes. Discovery aids activity. 

1. Window gardens are means of causing the child 

to discover the relation of light, heat and 
moisture to plant life. 

2. Five or more examples worked in multiplication 

of decimals will lead to the rule. 

3. Actual experiments with levers will quickly im- 

press the rules regarding fulcrum, weight and 
power. 

4. See also inductive method. 

123. From the empirical to the rational. — "Science is organized 
knowledge; and before knowledge can be organized, some of 



METHODS OF TEACHING 65 

it must be possessed. Every study, therefore, should have a 
purely experimental introduction; and only after an ample 
fund of observations has been accumulated, should reasoning 
beg-in." (Spencer, Education, p. 93 of Kellogg' s edition). 

So this rule means that knovvrledge must be gained v^hoUy 
by personal experience. It embodies all of the other preceding 
axioms. We admit that pupils should learn much by their 
own efforts, but all subject-matter cannot be mastered in this 
way. Some must be taken on the authority of the teacher, as 
the deductions in history, economics, and advanced mathe- 
matics and science. Our criticism is that the rule should not 
be absolute because all subjects do not admit personal experi- 
mentation. 

124. Heuristic method. — This name is derived from a Greek 
word meaning to find; and so it is a method of directing in- 
stead of telling. By questions, directions, problems and sug- 
gestions the child is encouraged to find out everything for 
himself by discovery. It is a constructive method which aims 
to promote self-realization. It is the method of discovery under 
sympathetic and intelligent guidance. 

Illustration. A class is beginning the study of Asia. With- 
out any lecturing by teacher or reading by pupils, turn to the 
map of Asia. Each pupil has a geography. Take a general 
view of surface; location, direction and names of mountains. 
Next take drainage; rivers, running north, east and south; 
hence, three great slopes; highlands and lowlands contrasted 
and located. Coast line, peninsulas, harbors noted. Condi- 
tions affecting climate and the probable modifying elements. 
Probable occupations, productions and consequent states of 
civilization. 

The second process is verification. Observation and infer- 
ence in the first process beget lively interest and active think- 
ing, and then the verification by consulting the printed pages 
completes the first period of study. Contrast the old memory 
exercise in studying Asia. See last 'two sections in chapter 
on geography. 



66 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

125. Prussian method. — Hinsdale says ttiat "teacliing is 
bringing- knowledge into due relation with the mind." In the 
effort to induce pupils to share willingly in all the activities 
of the schoolj the Prussian method puts the pupils and teacher 
under a feeling of equality in a kind of social participation. 
For instance, a lesson covers eight problems in arithmetic. 
All pupils are equipped for written work at desks. The 
teacher calls forthe interpretation of the first problem, and 
several pupils in turn contribute their opinions. This arouses 
the social stimulus or the general feeling in favor of individual 
and class success. All begin the written solution; one is 
called to explain a step, another explains a second step, and 
so on. After reciting, each one continues his written work. 
So every step is explained in interpretation, solution and 
analysis; every pupil has shared in oral and written work; 
every problem has been solved and all the difficulties have 
been cleared away. The tone is conversational, the manner is 
natural, the work is interesting in process and results, and 
the spirit of a civic community has been experienced by all. 
This kind of education is living, and not a mere preparation 
for living. 

126. Inductive method.— A process of reasoning which 
establishes a general rule, definition, principle or proposition 
based upon the knowledge of particular cases. In section 44 
we explained briefly that the natural order in acquiring 
knowledge is percepts, concepts, judgments. This order is 
said to be the order of race development. Primitive man 
learned, through concrete and individual experiences, certain 
facts which he later formed into general conclusions.. For 
example, flint is good material for arrow-heads. Such knowl- 
edge became a general possession and each generation added 
to the general fund of knowledge. 

Illustrations. Solving several examples in division of frac- 
tions and then deriving the rule for inversion of the divisor; 
studying sentences containing relative pronoun and antecedent. 



METHODS OF TEACHING 67 

and then constructing- a rule showing- that the pronoun and 
antecedent need not agree in case ; beg-inning- the study of 
history at seven o'clock every school day for two weeks, and then 
noticing- that the mind has formed a habit or rule of thinking 
about history daily at that hour. 

127. Deductive method.— A process of reasoning that starts 
with general rule, definition, principle, or proposition and 
shows its respective application to particular cases. Thus in 
teaching grammar, have pupils learn definitions first and 
then apply them; in arithmetic, learn rule and then work 
examples; in geography, learn definitions of land forms and 
later look for illustrations. 

128. The inductive-deductive method. — Neither induction nor 
deduction can alone constitute a suitable method in a complete 
act of instruction. The two must be combined. On account 
of this necessity, some writers mean inductive-deductive when 
they use the term inductive method. Let the student remem- 
ber, then, to combine these two processes in every development 
lesson. 

A second point to be remembered is that these two methods 
are justified by psychology ; they satisfy the working of the 
mind. Teachers hear much about the action of the mind in 
passing from particular to general and then from general 
back to particular. In developing the definition of an adverb, 
the teaching emphasizes several adverbs in sentences. A 
knowledge of each adverb is a particular notion. Then the 
mind generalizes these particular notions and expresses the 
general notion in a definition of an adverb. But this does not 
complete the process; the impression is not deep enough. In 
other words, this definition must be applied to other adverbs 
in sentences, and pupils must construct sentences containing 
adverbs. This application or drill completes the educative 
process by passing from the general to other particulars. 
Thus the inductive-deductive method makes a complete mental 
act in every development lesson, 



68 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

III. FROM VIEWPOINT OF SUBJECT-MATTER. 

129. Analytic method. This method proceeds from wholes to 
parts. In grammar, begin with sentence and proceed to parts 
of sentence. In literature, study the whole selection before 
considering paragraphs, sentences and words. In primary 
reading, begin with sentence and go to v/ords, letters and 
phonics. In nature study, observe the plant or other material 
as a whole before studying its parts. 

130. Synthetic method.— The synthetic method proceeds from 
parts to wholes. In grammar, begin with words and build 
sentences. In primary reading, the building of phonic ele- 
ments into words is synthesis. In primary geography begin 
with the schoolroom, having the children make a map of it and 
understand how a map represents an object; thence proceed to 
the school-yard, the street, the city and show upon the city 
and state maps all the children have themselves observed, in- 
cluding rivers, hills, mountains, etc. 

131. Comparison of analysis>nd synthesis.— Both relate to the 
action of the mind in dealing with individual things and the 
parts of those things. Analysis seeks to show the relation 
between the parts; synthesis emphasizes the parts themselves 
and later shows their relation in construction. Synthesis 
embodies the guiding principles in most of the maxims treated 
under the pupils' point of view; the process is inductive. 
Analysis embodies the converse of those maxims; it is de- 
ductive. 

132. Topical method.— Subject-matter may be divided so 
that each heading will include material for a unit of discus- 
sion. The ordinary division into chapters does not always 
suit the requirements for class assignment or for individual 
discussion. A topic should be complete in itself and yet be 
one of the related parts in a larger division. 

The advantages of the topical method are convenience in as- 
signing lessons, definite responsibility in recitation, and 
independence of pupil in thought and expression. The 



METHODS OF TEACHING 69 

disadvantag^e conies only from abuse in which facts are dis- 
connected and class stimulus is sacrificed to individual 
achievement. 

133. Text-book method. — This name was formerly g-iven as 
a kind of reproach to teachers who followed the matter and 
method of the text-books. A reaction went to the other extreme 
of oral teaching. Now educators are trying- to secure a 
reasonable average. 

The abuse of the text-book method required verbal memory 
of the contents. The extreme oral teaching has made pupils 
dependent upon the teacher. Pupils have become passive on 
account of not knowing what to study, where to find it, and 
how to study. 

Text-books should be used, and the prudence of teachers is 
a safe guide in avoiding extremes. 



Chapter VIII. General Method. 

134. Device, method, general method. — In the discussion of 
methods of teaching-, there is not enoug-h distinction between a 
mere device and a method. A device is a tactful presentation 
w^ithin the scope of method. It is g-enerally personal, partic- 
ular; it may or may not work well with another teacher under 
different circumstances. For instance, in teaching- about a 
lock in a canal an ingenious teacher may have a wooden 
model made by himself or by a pupil. This is strictly a de- 
vice, and a commendable one, but not properly a method 
although it is entitled to classification under objective or con- 
crete methods of teaching. Again, a teacher makes a chart 
of figures covering the ordinary combinations for rapid drill. 
It is a good device, but it is not a method. Recall that method 
is a broad principle determined by the psychology of the 
pupils' minds, the personality of the teacher and the nature of 
the subject-matter. 

We have described some of the methods which are useful in 
regular teaching. Now we come to consider whether there is 
one general method that is applicable in all teaching. If there 
is such a general method, it must be that there are general 
psychological laws applying to the development of all human 
beings. In accordance with Herbartian psychology, we think 
there are such laws and there is one general method. 

135. Order of the mind. — "No matter what the study may be, 
whether Latin, mathematics, science, or some other, the mind 
follows a certain order. Through the old related experiences 
(first step, preparation) new individual notions are reached 
(second step, presentation)', these are compared and their essen- 
tial characteristics abstracted (third step, comparison), and the 
resulting general truth is worded (fourth step, generalization)', 
this generalization finally receives application (fifth step, 
application).'''' 



GENERAL METHOD 71 

136. Apperception aided. — The order mentioned in the last 
paragraph embodies the formal steps of instruction. The 
steps grow out of Herbart's analysis of apperception; and so 
in following- this order in presenting- a lesson, the learner's 
mind is fitted for apperceiving- the subject-matter. 

137. Aims. — In writing- lesson plans, it is always advisable 
to state the aim of the lesson first, althoug-h this law of aim is 
not one of the Herbartian steps. A few years ag-o teachers in 
training- were told not to express the aim of the lesson for fear 
pupils would lose interest in the development. It was sup- 
posed that the anticipation of results would g-uarantee co- 
operative interest and that thereby the pupils would discover 
the essential purpose of the lesson. That view is not sound 
today ; it exalts the process of the presentation too much. 
Better state the aim as a focal point for all lines of energ-y 
during that recitation period. 

138. Rein on aim. — "The pupil should know beforehand 
what is coming-, if he is to bring- all his powers to bear upon 
the work of learning-; and it is easier to call out all his effort 
if he knows beforehand what is to be g-ained. To conduct a 
child along- an unknown road, toward an unknown object by 
means of questions and hints, the purpose of which he does 
not see, to lead him on imperceptibly to an unknown goal, has 
the disadvantage that it develops neither a spontaneous mental 
activity nor a clear insight into the subject. Having reached 
the end of such a line of thought the pupil looks about himself 
bewildered. He stands at the goal but does not see the rela- 
tion that the result bears to the labor performed. He does not 
rise to that satisfactory mental activity and favorable disposi- 
tion of mind which are stimulated by the pursuit of a clearly 
set purpose." — From Rein, University of Jena. 

139. Preparation. — This step is an effort to make the pupils' 
minds ready to apperceive the new knowledge. It does not 
mean the teacher's preparation or the pupils' prior study al- 
though both are necessary and useful. It uses acquired 



72 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

knowledg-e as an apperceiving- group by which the new knowl- 
edge may be assimilated. So the purpose of this preparation 
is to put the body and the mind into a receptive attitude, and 
to relate the new and the old so that attention and interest 
will be active. In brief, it is putting mental, moral and physi- 
cal powers into harmonious co-operation with the teacher's 
efforts. 

How should such preparation be made ? Agreeable opening 
exercises are the first contribution. In the recitation, it may 
be an anecdote, a description, a brief review of related work, 
or simply a statement of the aim of the lesson. During the 
day, brief physical exercises, the singing of a song, or even a 
two-minute visiting privilege may dispel fatigue and adjust 
the minds to the required condition. Tact is the best guide. 
The one danger is in making the preparation too long, — a 
scattering of attention and energy. Sometimes it is best to go 
straight to the presentation. In this, let the minds of your 
pupils be the criterion. 

140. Presentation. — In this part of general method the teacher 
utilizes some of the specific methods discussed in the last 
chapter, as the inductive-deductive method. The minds pre- 
pared in the first step are now getting needed individual 
notions. Watch the process of passing to general notions. 

141. Comparison or association. — The mind continues the 
process of apperception by associating, comparing and con- 
trasting the facts of the new lesson with the facts previously 
acquired. The mind here abstracts the essential character- 
istics of each notion presented. 

142. Generalization. — Now the notions so clearly distin- 
guished in the previous step are classified in the form of rules 
principles, definitions, laws, maxims or tables. The mind 
has formed general notions. 

143. Application or drill.— We have seen that the purpose of 
instruction is the formation of general notions or ideas. But 

general ideas will not remain a possession without thorough 



GENERAL METHOD 73 

drill. So this step requires impressive drill and application 
to practical life. It is the completion of each educative act, 
namely, the return from g-eneral notions to particular notions. 

144. Dr. Hervey on formal steps of instruction. — Dr. W. L. 
Hervey, a member of the New York City Board of Examiners, 
gave his opinion of these formal steps in the New York Teach- 
ers' Monographs, December, 1900. The article is conservative 
and practical. He admits the validity of the opinion regard- 
ing- general method and the movement of the mind, but he dis- 
approves a rigid observance of the formal steps. He em- 
phasizes the point that the five steps need not come in the 
order in which they are mentioned, but they all should come 
somewhere in every complete act of instruction. He cautions 
teachers against making. the preparation too long because he 
has observed that pupils' minds have wonderful powers of 
adjustment to a straightforward and even blunt approach. 
He thinks that preparation instead of standing alone at the 
beginning of the recitation occurs at each step in teaching; each 
step should prepare for the next. Good teaching from start to 
finish is steeped in preparation. Preparation is no more an 
antecedent of the first step than it is of the third ; hence prep- 
aration may involve the presentation, thought, or application 
or all of them; and second, that each of these Involves prepara- 
tion. There are an infinite number of preparations within 
each method-whole, and there should be infinite variety in the 
method of handling them. Nor is it necessary that comparison 
and generalization should hold rigidly to the order in which 
they are named, for we frequently ask children to think and 
afterwards to imagine. — From page 111, Science of Education. 

145. Dr. Hervey's conclusion. — "The human mind, (generally 
speaking) is not a blunderbuss. Yet from the directions for 
making lesson plans which I have known to be given to ad- 
vanced classes by teachers of the formalist type, it would 
appear that teaching the mind is precisely analagous to loading 
a brass cannon. Swabbing, taking aim, loading with powder 
and shot, ramming home, setting off the fuse, all must come 



74 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

in a certain order not to be deviated from. Such a fig-ure 
limps on both feet. In more senses than one it smacks of mili- 
tarism. One who is appealed to by it belong-s in a factory 
where thing-s are made, or on the firing- line where people are 
shot at, not in a school where minds grow and are fed. 

Therefore, the best way, in my judg-ment, to profit by the 
doctrine is not to think chiefly of steps, or of sequence, or of 
separateness, or of junctions at which one must chang-e cars 
for the next step— the best teachers when at their best are, I 
trow, not thinking- about the formal steps — but to think chiefly 
of the ideal end of instruction, as being- that happy state of 
pupils' minds in which, for warmth and resource, there are 
abundant stores of concrete imagery, and, for economy and 
serviceableness, there is organization-pigeon-holes and tags, 
card catalogues and indexes, or if you will, generals, lieuten- 
ants, and privates, each knowing his duty and each on the qui 
vive to do it. The formal steps are, then, so many ideals 
which the teacher must attain before his work is done." 

146. Illustrations. — Three lessons are worked out in Mc- 
Murry's How to Conduct the Recitation, pages 18-22. The 
subjects are Oak Trees, The Cotton-gin, Nouns. Every 
student is advised to study that pamphlet. It is a remarkably 
clear explanation of the Formal Steps of Instruction. (A. S. 
Barnes & Co., 15c). Several lessons are given in Part III of 
DeGarmo's Essentials of Method. (D. C. Heath & Co., 65c.) 

147. Illustration in grammar grade reading. 

THANATOPSIS. 

So live that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, which moves 
To that mysterious realm where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not like the quarry slave at night, 
Scourged to his dungeon, but sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him and lies down to pleasant dreams. 

— Bryant. 



GENERAL METHOD 75 

1. Write out and answer the questions you would ask to 
lead pupils (a) to understand the above selection; (b) to under- 
stand the meaning-s of the more difficult words; (c) how you 
would secure a proper reading- of the passagfe. Make your 
answer cover a method-whole showing- application of the formal 
steps of instruction. 

I. Aim. To interpret and appreciate Thanatopsis. 
II. Preparation. As a preliminary preparation, see that 
each pupil has a copy of the whole poem Than- 
atopsis. (2) Assig-n references for the leading- 
biog-raphical facts relating- to Bryant, and espec- 
ially the occasion of the writing- of Thanatopsis, 
so that the pupils may acquire the information for 
themselves. (3) Write upon the board summons, 
innumerable, caravan, mysterious, realm, scourged, 
dungeon, unfaltering, drapery. 
The preparation of the minds of the pupils is brief 
and direct in this lesson. The poem deserves im- 
mediate and energ-etic study. I should proceed as 
follows : To-day we shall study a poem from 
American literature. It is Thanatopsis. Perhaps 
it will interest you to know that the author was 
only a boy when he wrote Thanatopsis. Bryant 
wrote Thanatopsis when he was eighteen years 
old. It was sent to the North American Review 
either by the poet or his father. Richard Henry 
Dana of the Review supposed the writer to be some 
one of international reputation. The poet's father 
was then a member of the Massachusetts Senate. 
Mr. Dana went to the State House to consult him, 
but the appearance of Dr. Bryant seemed to satisfy 
Mr. Dana that Dr. Bryant was not the author, so 
Mr. Dana returned to Cambridg-e without an in- 
terview with the Senator. Later he learned that 
the author was the Doctor's son. 



76 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

The averag-e ag-e of the pupils of this class is about 
fourteen years. You know what kind of composi- 
tions you are able to write, so let us see what kind 
of a composition Bryant wrote. 

III. Presentation. We are required to give the questions 
and answers leading- pupils (a) to understand the 
selection, (b) to understand the difficult words and 
(c) to read the passag-e properly. As these three 
requirements can better be covered in treating- the 
lesson as a unity I should follow the plan of critical 
reading. This kind of reading- requires pupils to 
go through the whole selection three times. The 
first reading is for the pleasure; the second to get 
the plan of the work; and the third to go into the 
construction of the work and of the sentences, the 
meaning of words, allusions, etc. 

T. What does the word Thanatopsis mean? 

P. Thanatopsis means a view of death, or a medita- 
tion on the subject of death. 

T. What part of the poem is the selection given ? 

P. The selection is the last part, or the conclusion of 
the poem. 

T. What does summons mean ? 

P. Summons means an order calling a man to court. 

T. Find a general meaning of the word. 

P. Summons means a call from any authority. 

T. What word on the board is familiar to you from 
your other studies ? 

P. Caravan means a wagon or a company of persons 
crossing a desert. 

T. With what occupation do you associate the word 
caravan ? 

P. Caravan makes me think of commerce. 

T. In this poem, which meaning does caravan have — 
a. commercial outfit or simply a number of 



GENERAL METHOD 77 

persons crossing- a desert? Find the meaning 
of innumerable, and the answer will seem 
clearer to you. 

T. What other word have we had before ? 

P. We read of a king's realm or country, in history. 

T. What kind of realm is mentioned here ? 

P. A mysterious realm. This means a country we 
do not know much about. 

T. If you recall your history stories, you will find a 
word here which suggests, a kind of punish- 
ment. 

P. Scourged is the word. It suggests the punishment 
of slaves. 
IV. Application. Three readings will give the pupils an 
understanding of the poem. To help pupils 
appreciate the spirit of the poem, I should 
explain the difficult allusions, show how death 
emphasizes the brotherhood of humanity in 
nature and then study this particular selection 
as an exhortation to better living. Summons 
will then have a broader meaning because it 
comes from God ; innumerable caravan means 
all mankind; mysterious realm is the here- 
after; and the consciousness of a life well spent 
will rob death of its terror. I should take a 
week, if necessary, on this poem, not in the 
dissecting of it, but in mastering the points of 
strength and beauty that combine to make 
Thanatopsis such a remarkable production. 

148. Illustrative lesson on attribute complement. — Attribute 
complement or attribute is known as predicate noun, predicate 
pronoun and predicate adjective. 

I. Aim. To teach attribute complement. 
II. Preparation. Review definition of sentence, subject, 
predicate, noun, verb, pronoun, adjective. 



78 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

III. Presentation. Have these sentences on board. 

1. Birds sing-. 

2. Happy children sing. 

3. The children are happy. 

4. Pupils become students. 

5. Lincoln was a good man. 

6. Longfellow was kind. 

7. Longfellow was a poet. 

8. It is he. 

9. This is an attribute. 
10. Who is it? It is I. 

Sentences 1 and 2 will impress some of the points 
covered in the preparation. Sentence 2 is an 
easy approach to the adjective happy in 3. 
All read the third sentence. Then individual 
answers on subject children and predicate are 
happy. Next get subject noun children and 
predicate verb are. Note that are alone is not 
the predicate; are happy is the predicate. 

T. Covering word happy, asks one to read. 

P. The children are. 

T. Is what you have read complete or incomplete? 

P. It is incomplete. 

T. Uncovers happy. Now is the expression complete 
or incomplete ? 

P. The sentence is complete. 

T. What word makes it complete? 

P. Happy makes it complete. 

T. Happy is a complement. Write word on board ; 
analyze it: complete -\- ment; inent — W\2X^\\\Qh. 
Now define. 

P. Complement means that which completes. 

T. What part of the sentence is completed by happy ? 

P. Happy completes the predicate. 

T. What part of speech is happy in sentence 2 ? 



GENERAL METHOD 79 

P. Happy modifies the noun children ; hence happy 
is an adjective. 

T. What part of speech is happy in sentence 3? 

P. The same; it is an adjective. 

T. Yes; an adjective completing- the predicate. It is 
a predicate adjective. Another name is some- 
times g-iven. If the children are happy, you 
can say" that happiness is an attribute of the 
children. Thus for g-ood children, goodness is 
an attribute; industrious pupils, industry is 
an attribute. So w^e may call happy a predi- 
cate adjective or an attribute complement. 

T. Find another adjective used as an attribute. 

P. Sentence 6, kind is an attribute. 

T. Then, as far as you have observed, what part of 
speech may be used as an attribute ? 

P. An adjective may be used as an attribute. 

T. All read sentence 4. Then proceed as before to 
teach that students completes the predicate and 
refers to the subject. It is a noun used as at- 
tribute complement; or it is a predicate noun. 
Likewise for predicate pronouns, eliciting for 
each complement (a) that it completes the 
predicate and (b) that it describes the subject 
or means the same as the subject. 

IV. Comparison. Pupils distinguish attribute from object. 

V. Generalization. Call for definition of attribute and, 
when suitable wording is secured, write de- 
finition on board. All read; individuals read. 
All define; individuals define. 

VI. Application or drill. Direct application in such 
sentences as these. 

1. This definition is easy. 

2. Grammar is a useful subject. 



80 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

3. Easy is a predicate adjective. 

4. Emerson was a scholar. 

5. The wind feels cool. 

6. Who called? It was she. 

Then apply by requiring contrast, thus : 

1. This is our school. 

2. We have a new school. 

3. Whom did you ask? 

4. Who was it? 

5. This work seems pleasant. 

For further drill, have pupils construct sentences containing 
attributes. It may be helpful to learn this sentence: The 
verbs he, become, appear, seem, feel, look, are generally followed 
by an attribute. 

149. Method-whole. — The use of the general method requires 
a special classification of subject-matter. In order that we 
may apply the formal steps of instruction the subject-matter 
has to be grouped and classified into definite unities. Each 
unit of instruction is considered a method-whole. Thus in 
studying New York State all of the drainage could be put un- 
der an outline or classification; and then this general outline 
could be divided for particular lessons each week or each day. 
So it is that each division may be treated as a method-whole. 
Gordy defines method-whole as a group of particular facts 
involving a universal. In other words, any topic or portion 
of a subject that constitutes a unity such that the process of 
teaching follows the inductive-deductive method is a method- 
whole. It should be noted in connection with this explanation 
of method-whole that the matter of general method, formal 
steps of instruction, particular notion to general notion, in- 
ductive-deductive method, and complete act of instruction are 
all different names for one general principle underlying the 
Herbartian general method. The lessons on Thanatopsis and 
attribute complement are illustrations of method-wholes. 



Chapter IX. Spelling. 



150. Accuracy a worthy aim. — As long as accuracy remains 
a requisite of success in life, correct spelling- should be con- 
sidered a vi'tal aim in education. A theoretical search for the 
causes of poor spelling- may place the blame upon the pupil, 
the words studied, or the methods of teaching- ; but the practi- 
cal accomplishment of spelling- correctly will never come until 
teachers ag-ree that spelling deserves to be taug-ht as an in- 
dividual subject and not merely as an incidental study. 
Errors are too often excused on the g-round that it is impossible 
for certain pupils to learn to spell, or that misspelling is a 
mark of genius. Better strive for accuracy as an ideal than 
to justify errors by excuses. 

151. Psychology of spelling. — It is a mistake to say that spell- 
ing depends upon the eye alone or upon any other single sense; 
spelling demands multiple sense instruction. In learning to 
spell, as in all other educative efforts, the child should be 
taught to use as many senses as possible. One sense may do 
more than another, but one sense cannot accomplish the best 
results without the co-operation of the other healthy senses. 

152. The problem. — Poor spellers are found in every class. 
This is a fact, not a supposition. Our duty is to find the 
causes of the trouble and then try to apply specific remedies. 
Pedagogy is not a panacea, nor is wholesale criticism a help- 
ful aid to efficiency. There are difficulties in subject-matter, 
in pupils, and in teachers. 

153. Difficulties in subject matter. — The English language is a 
composite one, derived from a large number of other languages, 
and so there are many irregularities. For illustration, note 
the origin: depot, French; coffee, Arabic; banana, Spanish; 
waltz, Gernian; sloop, Dutch; drink, Anglo-Saxon; gale, 



82 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Scandinavian; manual, Latin, epistle, Greek. The principal 
difficulties are the following: 

1. Silent letters. 

2. Lang-uag-e not phonetic, i. e., spelling- different 

from sound; as, eight, phonic, praise. 

3. Different pronunciations for same combinations 

of letters; as, ou in ought, soul, bough, etc. 

4. The numerous sounds of the vowels. One edu- 

cator puts ninety-five per cent of all errors in 
spelling under this head. 

154. Difficulties in the pupils. 

1. Not knowing how to study. In every lesson there 

are certain words which the pupils already 
know. In spelling §,s in all other subjects the 
process should be one of separating the known 
from the unknown so that the child may direct 
his energy toward what he does not already 
know. Habituate pupils to this process of 
selection so that they may devote their energy 
to the mastery of the new words in the list. 
Notice, too, the specific difficulty in each word. 
Can the word be spelled phonetically ? If not, 
why? The answer will direct attention to 
the difficulty. Homonyms illustrate this diffi- 
culty. Where is the accent? Pupils rarely 
misspell any accented syllables because the 
emphasis has impressed those syllables upon 
sight and hearing. Hence, observe the unac- 
cented syllables for visualization. 

2. Failure in observation. Take pupil apart from 

the class for personal instruction. Test him 
on a few words to find his difficulty, and it is 
probable that the difficulty is in not seeing the 
word exactly as it is. Take two or three 
words apart from the printed pr written exer- 



SPELLING 83 

cise and encourage him by having- him master 
these few words by oral and written effort, 
and then give him credit for every indication 
of progress. This is a special effort in the 
formation of right habits of study, and every 
progress made by a defective pupil will be an 
encouragement that will work its own reward. 
A persistence in right habits will overcome 
the defect in failing to see the word exactly as 
it is printed or written. 

3. Carelessness. Try visualization. Write five 
words on the board. Have pupils look intently 
at them, then cover or erase the words and let 
pupils try to write the list in order. A few 
exercises of this kind will direct attention to 
the difficulties in each word, to the order of the 
words, and to their particular relation to one 
another. An entire lesson can be learned by 
a whole class in a short time in this way. It 
is another means of promoting the social 
stimulus advocated by Dewey. 

155. Defective teaching. — The third cause of poor spelling is 
found in the following ten mistakes in teaching spelling. 

1. Depending upon the eye alone. Use eye, ear, 

tongue, and hand. 

2. Memory overtaxed by learning unrelated lists of 

words. Select words pupils can use. 

3. Spelling taught incidentally in connection with 

other studies. Make it an individual study 
and teach spelling alone. 

4. Dictation used for review before the pupils have 

mastered the advanced lessons. 

5. Meanings of words given as dictionary defini- 

tions. Lead pupils to give their own expres' 
gions and applications. 



84 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

6. Infrequent recitation periods and lack of varied 

and thoroug-h drill. 

7. Classification of words according- to the number 

of syllables. This is unscientific and unin- 
teresting. Use grouping under comparison 
and contrast. 

8. Trying to teach spelling when the child's mind 

is unprepared. Do not interrupt connected 
thinking in other subjects to correct a mis- 
spelled word. Keep the word for a special 
list. 

9. Failure to use a variety of interesting drills in- 

volving competition such as spelling down or 
choosing sides. 
10. Permitting pupils to form the habit of thinking 
that correct spelling is impossible. 

156. What words shall pupils spell?— Some favor a list of 
words selected from the pupils' vocabulary and from the 
lessons of the grade, while others advocate the use of a spell- 
ing book. In either case, the present tendency of opinion 
seems to be this : // is sufficient for a child to be able to spell the 
words he can use. This view is in accordance with the prin- 
ciples of adaptation, utility and interest. 

157. Arguments for text-book. 

1. Convenience. Time saved for pupil and teacher. 

2. System. Modern books are not miscellaneous 

lists of words; grouping and scope are deter- 
mined by the needs of pupils. 

3. Breadth and utility. Adequate provision is 

made for future demands as well as for actual 
present use. 

4. Accuracy. Spelling, syllabication, accent and 

even pronunciation are accurately given. Er- 
rors are frequently niade in copying list§, 



SPELLING 85 

5. Stimulus. Ownership is an instinct, and happy 
is the child who is made to feel the worth of 
such an incentive. The average pupil can g-o 
far beyond the limited list of words in his 
g-rade, and a simple appeal to personal ambi- 
tion will encourage him to do so. The book is 
an invitation to self-activity; it is a means to 
helpful rivalry; and it offers individual guid- 
ance to the future of the child who must leave 
school to earn a living. 

158. In favor of selected lists of words. 

1. Specific utility. The words become a part of 

definite knowledge through the child's think- 
ing, feeling and acting. Opposed to vague 
concepts because the child knows and uses 
every word ; development through activity and 
apperception. 

2. Interest. The child's interest is limited to the 

present; hence, limit words to present use. 

3. Adaptation. Books adapted to average groups 

may not satisfy individual needs. 

4. Economy of effort. Lists are conducive to con- 

centrated, productive effort ; books present 
many words that are useless on account of 
being too easy or too difficult. 

5. Correlation. Lists selected from all the subjects 

in the grades tend to produce unity and ac- 
curacy in each child's circle of thought. 

159. Combination of book and lists. — However well a book or 
a list may serve its purpose, there should be a special list of 
the misspelled words in every class. Combine all useful 
devices. 

160. Methods. — Oral spelling, written spelling, and a com- 
bination of oral and written spelling are usually considered 
the three methods. Numerous devices are often discussed as 



86 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

methods. The three methods mentioned should be combined 
or alternated frequently so that pupils may profit by all of the 
advantages in each method. 

161. Advantages of oral spelling. 

1. It teaches enunciation, syllabication, pronuncia- 

tion. 

2. Interest stimulated through honest rivalry. 

3. Economy of time by avoiding- the necessity of 

correcting- papers. 

162. Disadvantages of oral spelling. 

1. It does not insure correct written spelling-. 

2. Every pupil does not have to spell all the words 

of the lesson. 

3. Inattention may be fostered in a large class. 

163. Advantages of written spelling. 

1. Practical because it prepares for accurate 

written work. 

2. Every pupil has to spell all the words. 

3. Co-ordination of many senses. 

4. Correlation of many subjects. 

164. Disadvantages of written spelling. 

1. The pupil must use his sense of hearing to obtain 

proper enunciation and pronunciation. 

2. Social stimulus is lacking until the report of the 

exercises is made. 

3. Dishonest work by copying and also in correct- 

ing the work when papers are interchanged. 

165. Directions for studying a spelling lesson in class. 

1. See that physical environment is satisfactory : 

light, heat, ventilation, seats. 

2. Prepare the minds of the children by telling 

them that the purpose of this exercise is to 
master a certain amount of work in a minimum 
time. 



SPELLING 87 

3. Have pupils look carefully at a word. 

4. Close book, think of the word, write it. 

5. Comparison of the written word with the printed 

word. 

6. Repeat the process when mistakes have been 

made. 

166. How to learn a spelling lesson.— When spelling^ held 
equal rank with arithmetic and other studies, it was customary 
for the teacher to assig-n an exercise for study in school or at 
home, and the pupils considered it a part of their duty to learn 
to spell every word in the exercise. This plan of assig-nment 
and study is criticised in the new education upon the ground 
that the learning of such words in that manner is a mere 
exercise of the memory without the use of correlation or 
multiple sense in the process of learning. What, then, shall 
be substituted ? A German educator, Herman Schiller, has 
made a practical investigation of oral and visual modes of 
learning spelling. His conclusions are quoted in Principal 
W. B. Wait's Annual Report for the New York Institution for 
the Blind, 1903. They are in the order of merit, from highest 
to lowest. The quotation marks indicate Mr. Wait's report; 
the criticisms are ours. 

"1. Copying with speaking (naming the letters 
softly)." This plan employs the eye, the ear, 
the tongue and the hand; it requires attention, 
observation, and physical poise; it presupposes 
good control of the class and favorable environ- 
ment. 

"2. Copying with speaking aloud." This plan is 
criticised upon the ground that the noise made 
by a large number of the pupils may be a 
source of disturbance to several pupils in the 
class. 

"3. Seeing with writing movements." Under this 
plan a word is written upon the blackboard 



88 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

or upon a card so that every pupil in class can 
see it. All pupils fix their g-aze upon the 
work in an effort to visualize it. In making- 
the w^riting- movements in the air, their effort 
to learn combines the sense of sight and the 
motor activity. 

"4. Spelling (hearing the letters named)." This 
plan is criticised because it deals with letters 
as the units of our language instead of con- 
sidering words as symbols of ideas. 

"5. Seeing" with speaking aloud. " 

"6. Seeing with speaki'ng softly." 

"7. Seeing- alone. " . 

"8. Hearing with writing- movements." 

"9. Hearing and speaking aloud. " 
"10. Hearing with speaking softly." 
"11. Hearing alone (word pronounced only)." 

"In all these methods, except hearing the letters named, 
and hearing the word pronounced, but not spelled, the work 
is done by the pupil alone. Spelling based upon words 
pronounced but not spelled to the pupil takes the lowest place, 
but spelling based on words both pronounced and spelled to 
the ear takes fourth place. Here it should be noticed that 
there is a long period in the child's life before it has learned 
to read or write, when hearing and speech are the only avail- 
able means of learning language." 

"It will be seen that Schiller gives first place to a composite 
method; copying and speaking softly; the complete act involv- 
ing the four memories, namely, a visual form of memory, 
a manual motor memory, vocal motor memory and the aural 
memory." 

167. Suggestions to the teacher. 

1. Pronounce the word only once. 

2. Give only one trial in oral spelling. 

3. Work for natural tones in spelling. 



SPELLING 89 

4. Do not mispronounce unusual words for the sake 

of aiding the child in spelling- such words. 

5. Vary the order from that given in the spelling 

book. 

6. Have pupils pronounce the word before and after 

spelling it. 

7. Have pupils pause at the end of each syllable, 

but do not have them pronounce each syllable 
separately. 

8. Teach phonic spelling whenever that will be an 

aid in mastering the words. 

168. Rules for spelling. — A few simple rules may be helpful 
to pupils who find difficulty in ordinary spelling, but such 
memorizing should be limited to actual usefulness. The limita- 
tions are evident as soon as a child finds more difficulty in 
learning and applying the rules than in memorizing the words 
themselves. 

The substance of the rules is the same in all texts, but 
simplicity and clearness in wording is found in the following 
from Reed and Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, page 258. 

Rule I. — Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with 
a vowel; as, fine, finer; love, loving. 

Exceptions.— The e is retained (1) after c and g when the 
suffix begins with a or o; as, peaceable, changeable; (2) after 
o; as, hoeing; and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity 
of the word; as singeing, dyeing. 

Rule II. — Y after a consonant becomes i before a suffix not 
beginning with i; as, witty, wittier, dry, dried. 

Exceptions. — Y does not change before 's, nor in forming 
the plural of proper nouns; as, lady's, the Marys, the Henrys. 

Rule III. In monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before 
a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, hot, hotter; begin, be- 
ginning. 

Exception. — X, k, and v are never doubled, and gas has 
gases in the plural. 



90 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

169. Classification of words. 

1. Primitive. A word in its simplest form is a 

primitive or prime word; as, by, in, man, 
short, g;o. 

2. Derivative. A word formed from a primitive 

word by joining- prefixes or suffixes is a 
derivative word; as, g^oing-, unmanly, recall. 

3. Compound. Two or more words united into one 

word form a compound word; as, today, watch- 
man, subject-matter, text-book. 

4. Synonyms. Words having- the same or similar 

meaning are synonyms; as, hope and expect; 
certain and sure; devout and pious. 

5. Antonyms. Words having" opposite meaning- are 

antonyms; as, good and evil; lazy and in- 
dustrious. 

6. Homophones. Words having- the same sound but 

different spelling- and meaning- are homo- 
phones; as, sell and cell; beer and bier; write, 
rite and right. Sometimes called paronyms 
or homonyms. 

7. Homonyms. Words having- the same sound and 

spelling- but different meaning are homonyms; 
as the verb bear and the noun bear; the verb 
receipt and the noun receipt. 

170. How to teach synonyms. — The first attention to synonyms 
will be directed by the teacher. During the class criticism of 
compositions, favorable occasions will arise. The teacher's 
explanation must be the source of information until pupils are 
able to understand the dictionary distinctions. Pupils enjoy 
the liberty of expression that seems to be granted by the choice 
of words. Following are suggestions. 

1. Let oral and written language show the need of 

synonyms. 

2. The early use of synonyms is larger power of 

expression; a later use is precision in language. 



SPELLING 91 

3. Observe the choice of words in quotations, dicta- 

tion and other literary material. This is 
using a model. 

4. Have pupils use their ow^n lang-uag-e in making- 

distinctions; verify ansv^^ers by dictionary or 
other authority; use the synonyms in sentences. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Ability, capacity. Ability is active pow^er; ca- 

pacity is receptive pov^^er. You have shown 
ability in alg-ebra and capacity in literature. 

2. Between, among. Between is a preposition 

showing- relation of two things; among, more 
than two. Rachel stood between first and 
third among forty pupils. 

3. Habit, custom, usage. Habit relates to acts of 

an individual; custom implies the consent of 
many; and usage is established custom. If 
you wish to conform to the usage of literary 
men, observe the custom of our best writers 
and then try to form habits accordingly. 

4. Character, reputation. Character is what you 

are; reputation is what people think you are. 
"Character is injured by temptations and by 
wrongdoing; reputation, by slanders and 
libels." 

5. Compare, contrast. Compare is to find re- 

semblances; contrast, to find differences. Com- 
pare Labrador and England in latitude and 
contrast them in climate. 

171. How to teach homophones. — As these words are alike 
in sound, the sense of hearing alone will lead to error. Ob- 
serve the difference in spelling and the difference in meaning. 
With younger pupils, the words should be mastered one at a 
time; with older pupils, the whole group furnishes a basis for 
contrast and a stimulus for mastery. A few groups will 



92 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

suffice. It is understood, of course, that use in g-ood sentences 
is one final test of a knowledge of the spelling- and the mean- 
ing- of homophones. The Rational Spelling Book, by Dr. J. 
M. Rice, calls such words as these homonyms. 

bad, wicked 
bade, did bid. 

dying, expiring 
dyeing, coloring. 

rain, water from clouds 

reign, to rule 

rein, part of harness. 

rite, a ceremony 
right, correct 
write, to record letters 
wright, a workman. 

air, atmosphere 

ere, before 

e'er, ever 

heir, one who inherits 

Ayre, a town in Scotland. 

172. How to teach homonyms. — Since homonyms differ in 
meaning only, this one difference is the point to attack in 
teaching and learning. Recall all that has been approved as 
efficient teaching of spelling and apply as much of it as pos- 
sible in teaching homonyms. Here are a few specific direc- 
tions. 

1. Teach only such homonyms as young children 

need to know. 

2. Teach one homonym at a time. 

3. Teach by conversation and explanation; have 

pupils converse, explain, and use the word; 
write sentences. 



SPELLING 93 

4. Teach the corresponding homonym in a similar 

manner. 

5. Use both in sentences; drill upon meaning and 

spelling; pupils construct sentences. 

6. Illustrations of homonyms. 

bear, an animal 
bear, to carry. 

cheer, good feeling 
cheer, to encourage. 

saw, a carpenter's tool 
saw, did see. 

173. How to teach the meaning of words. 

1. Associative or objective process. The object is 

shown and the name applied. If object can- 
not be used, show picture or other representa- 
tion. Moulding board is a familiar means. 
Thus in teaching the noun divide, a word used 
for watershed in geography. Observe a divide 
in the school yard after a rain; compare roof ; 
make an excursion to a hill and see that it is 
a divide; use pictures, drawings and sand 
table. 

2. By imitation. Buzzing, flying, swimming, row- 

ing, and similar words are represented by 
action; likewise for words like mew, bark, 
purr, neigh and bleat. This activity appeals 
to the dramatic instinct in children. Compare 
kindergarten activity. 

3. By the context. Most words being und-erstood, 

focus attention upon what is not understood 
and then try to supply or substitute the mean- 
ing needed to complete the thought in the 
sentence. Take a quotation from Hawthorne: 
"Happiness in this world, when it comes. 



94 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

comes incidentally. Make it an object of pur- 
suit, and it leads us a wild-g^oose chase, and 
is never attained." The italicised words can 
be defined from the context. 

4. By etymology. Take autograph : graph, write ; 
auto, self; a signature written by the person 
himself. Compare telegraphy, phonograph, 
geography, stenography. Consult Anderson's 
"A Study of English Words", American Book 
Company, 1897; Trench's "On the Study of 
Words"; Greenough and Kittredge's Words 
and their Ways in English Speech, Macmil- 
lan, 1901; Kennedy's What Words Say. 

In analysis and synthesis pupils should use the 
technical names of the parts of words. Root, 
stem, base, adjunct, prefix and sufifix are used 
by different authors, but base, prefix and 
suffix are enough. 

The primitive form of a word is the root. It is 
the name used by philologists to denote the 
original form and meaning of the word. 

That part of a word to which the inflectional 
endings are added is the stem. The stem may 
be the same as the root, or it may be a modified 
form of the root. Thus in abduct, due is the 
root; duct is the stem. 

The word or stem to which other parts are joined 
is the base. The base may be a word, as 
in wa«4-hood; or it may be a stem, as in 
2i\x\.o+graph. 

A form or word joined to the base is an adjunct, 

as rest +/«/, steam + boat. 
A form placed before the base is a prefix; after 

the base a suffix. 



SPELLING 



95 



ad, to 



bene, well oi- 
good 



contra, 

against 

super, above 



ob, against, vi, way 



join, add 
factor, doer 
diet, speak 



script, 

written 



ad, to 



ject. 



thrown 



ILLUSTRATIONS 
SUFFIX 



ion, that 
which 



ous, being 



ive, in- 
clined to 



DERIV- 
ATIVES 

adjoin 

benefactor 

contradict 

super- 



MEANING 

to join to 

one who does good 

to speak against 

that which is written 



soinption above 



obvious 



adjective 



being directly in the 
way against or in 
front of us. 



inclined to be thrown 
to another word. 



By the history of words. This is another kind 
of etymolog-y. Thus dahlia is derived from 
the name of the botanist Dahl, Dunce is from 
Duns Scotus, a famous scholar, whose theories 
were later ridiculed so much that his name 
became a synonym for stupidity. Trivial is 
from tres viae, the junction of three roads in 
Rome where g-ossipers spent their time in idle 
talk. Sincere is sine, without, and cera, wax; 
a g-uaranty applied to perfect vases sold in 
Italy. 

By finding synonyms. Comparison and contrast 
impresses the meaning and at the same time 
enlarges the vocabulary. For example, take 
excite and incite. Excite, to rouse feelings for 
action; incite, to urge the excited feelings to 
accomplish something. A teacher excites her 
pupils for the consideration of social duty and 
then incites them to do their duty. 



96 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

174. How pupils may show their knowledge of the meaning of 

words. 

1. By use of the words in conversation. 

2. By interpretation of the words in reading-. 

3. By constructing- illustrative sentences. Inflam- 

mable means burning- with a flame, while 
combustible means burning without a flame. 

4. By forming definitions. 

5. By using synonyms. 

6. By etymology. 

7. By drawings and models. 

175. Means of learning pronunciation. 

1. By imitation of teacher. 

2. By phonic drill. 

3. By practice under 174. 

176. Uses of the dictionary. — The dictionary is intended as 
a means of verification and as a source of g-eneral knowledge. 
In this use the pupils should be taught the following: 

1. How to find the word. 

2. How to understand the sounds of the letters as 

indicated by the diacritical marks. 

3. To master the syllabication. 

4. To observe the accent. 

5. To give the pronunciation of the word. 

6. In later grades the dictionary will aid in secur- 

ing the varied meanings and also in mastering 
synonyms, antonyms, etc. 

177. Exercises in word-building. — This synthetic drill supple- 
ments the exercises in analysis of words, and also serves as 
generalization and application of all phases of knowledge in 
spelling. Some different ways are suggested. 

1. Write on board a dozen common prefixes and 
their meanings; likewise with root- words and 
suffixes. Have pupils copy in books for per- 
manent use at home or in school. This material 



SPELLING 97 

can be used in a lively competition to form the 
larg-est number of words. Pupils should con- 
sult dictionary to prove the accuracy of their 
ovi^n work. The teacher should help pupils to 
memorize all the prefixes, suffixes and root- 
words given; drill frequently upon the lists; 
and encourage pupils to enlarge the lists. 
The usefulness of such lists is a satisfaction 
to pupils. 

2. Each pupil gives a word having the suffix <?r, and 

then defines the word. 

3. One pupil gives a word and another pupil names 

synonym or antonym. 

4. Teacher suggests a word like graphic; pupils 

give other words having the same root. 

5. Suggest phonogram such as ail; conduct phonic 

drill on b, f, h, j, m, n, p, qu, r, s, t, w; com- 
bine; spell phonetically; use in sentences. 
Proceed in a similar manner with other phono- 
grams like ate, at, et, air, ow. All the letters 
of the alphabet will thus receive phonic drill. 

6. Form words from letters. Grant right to use the 

whole alphabet, but put a time limit upon the 
work. This exercise is a test in the con- 
structive ability of the pupil. It is the syn- 
thetic process of testing analysis. Every 
effort to form a word from the given letters 
makes an exercise in recalling the roots, the 
prefixes and the suffixes in familiar words. 
At the same time it may be a review of phonics 
as employed in homonyms and antonyms. 
178. Correlation through dictation.— The dictation exercises 
made by the teacher or the pupils will make use of the related 
parts of the grade work. If the pupils are following a selected 
list of words instead of a spelling book it is likely that every 



98 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

word will be studied in its related sense rather than as an 
isolated word. 

179. "Make every lesson a spelling lesson.**— Not approved 
pedag-og-y. The custom of directing- attention to misspelled 
words in every recitation is likely to distract the pupils by 
taking- their attention from connected thinking- in some other 
line of work. Such distraction cannot be justified for the sake 
of correcting misspelled words. As already sug-gested, there 
should be a special spelling- list in every class. It is better 
for the teacher to make note of any errors in the other lessons 
and then reserve those misspelled words for the reg-ular exer- 
cise during- the spelling- period. 

180. Pronunciation of each syllable.— This practice is not 
g-enerally approved. It is better to indicate a syllable by a 
pause, since the pronunciation of each syllable tends to 
separate the word into so many elements and thus to destroy 
its function as a symbol of one idea. 

181. Repetition in writing mispelled words. — Do you approve 
writing misspelled words fifty times or more? No, not even ten 
times. Such an exercise is harmful as a means of correction. 
After a number of repetitions, the writing- becomes a formal 
exercise without thought. 

182. Co-operation of pupils. 

1. Ask the pupils to prepare twenty-five words for 

spelling examination. Suggest that this work 
be done at home so that the individual element 
may be sure to be felt. 

2. Invite pupils to make dictation exercises covering 

the work of a week or a month. Insist upon 
the standard of accuracy in spelling, capital- 
ization, and proper use of the words. Invite 
the use of sentences taken from literature or 
some other subject in the grade rather than the 
construction of sentences dealing with mean- 
ingless thoughts of the child. 



SPELLING 



99 



3. Ask one pupil to choose four others to serve with 
him as critics in marking- the class exercises 
for a certain day. Have the work done at 
home and have each critic sign his name to 
the paper marked by him. Return papers the 
following- morning- and distribute them to their 
owners. Permit each pupil the rig-htof an ap- 
peal to his critic and finally to the teacher. 
This exercise emphasizes the responsibility of 
the critic while it teaches the child the real 
meaning- of criticism as disting-uished from 
fault-finding-. 

183. Grouping words by comparison.— We have already said 
that grouping- words according- to the number of syllables is 
unscientific. Some authors group according to meaning; 
others according to subjects or occupations. Comparison in 
spelling looks for similarities. 

out ought rough 

hour thought enough 

drought sought tough 

pout bought slough 

stout brought southern 



dough 


through 




should 


soul 


wound 




would 


source 


tour 




could 


shoulder 


you 






although 








rrouping by contrast. 






hour 


bow nought 


too 


power 


sew naught 


through 


rough 


wood 




dough 


ruff 


should 




low 



100 METHODS IN P:DUCATI0N 

185. Variety in the recitation and reasons therefor. 

1. Teacher pronounces words, pupils write on 

paper; teacher spells words, each pupil marks 
his own paper and rewrites misspelled words. 
Oral spelling of all the mispelled words. This 
plan maintains order, institutes the habit of 
systematic procedure and requires the use of 
self-activity and individual responsibility. 
It is a preparation for future pupil government 
in the spelling period. 

2. Teacher pronounces words, pupils write; self- 

correction, pupils consulting books; papers 
submitted to teacher. This plan is an effort 
toward self -correction and a test of observa- 
tion, industry and honesty. The pupil does 
the work. 

3. Teacher pronounces words, pupils write; papers 

exchanged, marked and returned; critics con- 
sult each other if necessary and refer to books 
to settle disputes. Such mutual criticism 
exalts the function of criticism, habituates the 
critic in accuracy, has justification by author- 
ity and gives the consciousness of social respon- 
sibility. Each pupil begins to feel his two-fold 
duty to the class and to himself. 

4. Teacher pronounces words, pupils write; one 

pupil stands, faces class, pronounces and 
spells while the others mark their own papers. 
Replace the spelling monitor if he misspells a 
word. This device tests enunciation, syllabi- 
cation and pronunciation; stimulates the desire 
of recognized leadership; promotes an active 
class spirit and sustains a healthy interest in 
the work of the recitation period. 

5. Divide the class into two groups; all pass to the 

board; one group writes, the other group 



Spelling lOl 

criticises; teacher or pupil pronounces words. 
Alternate the groups. In this way the teacher 
sees all the work and readily estimates its ac- 
curacy while the pupils are actually doing- the 
work. 

6. One group at board, one group writing at desks. 

Teacher pronounces words, notices errors at 
the board, and pronounces a second time the 
misspelled words. Pupils at seats aid as 
critics. This exercise is an economy of time 
for teacher and pupil as it serves to approxi- 
mate the work of a regular examination. 

7. All stand, spell in order, teacher not mentioning 

the misspelled words. The pupil who detects 
and corrects a misspelled word passes to a 
place of honor. This utilizes the competitive 
instinct in children and promotes the habit of 
thoughtful alertness. 

8. Choosing sides. 

9. Spelling down. 

10. Class responsibility. Appoint a committee of 
five pupils to prepare words for one week. 
Let this committee put words on board, con- 
duct spelling recitation, mark papers, tabulate 
reports, and suggest remedies for faults. This 
plan has so many merits that none but a weak 
teacher will reject it. 



Chapter X. Composition. 

186. Utility and culture.— To him who looks for the practical 
value of education, oral and written composition has recog-- 
nized usefulness as a means of business intercourse. No 
arg-ument is needed to justify the prominence given to composi- 
tion in the course of study; the only appeal is for some kind of 
teaching- that will assure rapidity and accuracy in the ap- 
proved forms of commercial expression. 

There is another value in composition, aside from that which 
helps to earn a living-. It is the culture value. Literature is 
composition; and out of the treasures of literature many a mind 
has drawn a compensation that is not measured by dollars and 
cents. It is a compensation that serves as a satisfactory substi- 
tute for much that is lacking in life. This joy of literary appre- 
ciation is a direct stimulus to imitative construction in composi- 
tion. Here is one reason why pupils are required to study 
literary masterpieces as models. In studying a type of com- 
position, the pupils are getting proper habits of interpretation 
and appreciation; the appreciation arouses a desire to imitate; 
and the desire to imitate is carried into execution through the 
voluntary act of the will. Thus we have an educational process 
in which the fruitage of culture is both a cause and an effect. 

187. General aims. 

1. To educate by stimulating thought. 

2. To develop the habit of fluent, easy and correct 

expression. 

3. To help impression through expression. 

188. The pupils' motives: pleasure, spontaneity, interest.— To 

relieve the writing of compositions from all feelings of drudg- 
ery, teachers are urged to make the desire of giving pleasure 
the predominating motive of the child. As soon as a pupil aims 
to write something that will please his teacher or his class- 



COMPOSITION * 103 

mates, or any other friends, his production will be character- 
ized by spontaneity; in reading- it or having- it read, his interest 
will be sustained or increased; and after receiving- favorable 
criticisms, which should always be given, he has a powerful 
stimulus for more and better work in this line. Note that the 
intellect, the feeling-s and the will are all strengthened as the 
pupil habituates himself to writing under these conditions. 

189. Principles determining selection of matter for compositions. 

1. Within scope of child's knowledg-e. 

2. Within scope of child's interest. 

3. Limited to prevent wandering. 

190. Kinds of composition exercises. — The two general di- 
visions of composition work are oral and written. Under each 
of these, there are various subordinate kinds which will be 
discussed in this chapter. One mistake in teaching is to 
separate oral and written exercises. Each aids the other and 
both should be used in every development exercise. 

191. Oral composition. — This form of composition naturally 
precedes written composition, but pupils do not realize that 
talking is composing-. While oral composition is a specific 
kind in itself, it should always be used as a preliminary 
preparation for every written composition. It makes the 
transition easier because the pupil feels that the writing- is 
only another way of expressing- what has already been ex- 
pressed orally. 

192. In primary grades. — In the lower primary grades, the 
oral work may be divided into conversation and reproduction, 
the aim of the latter being- to have the child g-ive the exact 
words as nearly as he can. Simple and interesting conversa- 
tion topics may include nature study, pictures, experiences of 
childhood, facts impressing kindness, good conduct, clean- 
liness and courtesy; and a little later the use of myths, fables, 
and historical narratives may be introduced. 

193. Dr. Maxwell on oral composition. — The phases of oral 
composition are here presented in seven heading-s. In reg-ard 



104 * METHODS IN EDUCATION 

to the use of sentences to explain the meaning- of words, some 
recent writers do not ag-ree with what is said in 7. They hold 
that correct use in a sentence is one way to teach the meaning 
of words. See section 173. 

"1. All answers to questions should be given in 
complete statements. 

2. Discussion of the contents of the reading lesson. 

3. Reproduction of stories told or read by the 

teacher. 

4. Description of processes in arithmetic and 

manual training. 

5. Separation of sentences into their complete sub- 

jects and predicates. 

6. Recitation of prose and poetry. 

7. Explanation of the meaning- of words. Putting 

words into sentences is not a method of teach- 
ing- the meaning- of words, but a method of 
determining- whether the meaning- of a word is 

known." 

— School Work, vol. 1, p. 1. 

194. Kinds of written exercises. — Some kinds of written work 
are sug^g-ested here but other classifications are accepted. 
Teachers will see the necessity of using- oral work in connec- 
tion with transcription, dictation, forms of correct expression, 
reproduction, paraphrase, abstract and elaboration. 

Transcription or copying. Much importance is placed upon 
the habit of copying- correctly from the board, from paper, or 
from books. Very few advanced pupils are able to copy ac- 
curately, because they never formed the habit of doing so in the 
primary grades. This exercise may be directed so as to teach 
or review capitalization, punctuation, unity of the sentence, 
sequence of thought, and paragraphing-. Select material that 
is interesting- and intelligible, and then require absolute ac- 
curacy. Do not make these exercises too long or too frequent. 

195. Dictation. — Exercises in dictation have a wide use in 
applying the pripciples of composition, and especially in 



COMPOSITION 105 

forceful drilling- to correct errors. If the exercises for dicta- 
tion are taken from the books used by the pupils, self-criticism 
is made easy and practical. 

196. Forms of expression. — Exercises on correct forms of ex- 
pression will habituate the pupils to the proper use of words 
before the technical reasons are understood. These exercises 
include such words as is and are, have and had, doesn't and 
donH, shall and will, may and can, double negatives and other 
common errors. 

197. Reproduction.— This form of composition exercise means 
the recalling- of the exact words of the author. This restricted 
meaning- of reproduction may not be accepted outside of New 
York City. Here and elsewhere the selections for reproduc- 
tion should be models in thoug-ht and style. 

198. Paraphrase.^This exercise means the expression of 
another's thoug-ht is one's own lang-uag-e. It is helpful in 
causing a pupil to get the thought expressed in a given pas- 
sage; but many educators consider it a harmful exercise be- 
cause it degrades the author's beauty of style and thought. 
Better to memorize the selections for reproduction. 

199. Abstract. — A condensed statement of the substance of 
another's thought in one's own language is an abstract. 

200. Elaboration. — This term is the converse of abstract 
writing. Brevitj' characterizes the abstract; enlargement and 
elucidation are characteristic of elaboration. It is an exercise 
conducive to freedom of thought and expression in narration, 
description, and exposition. 

201. Kinds of written composition. — Description, narration 
and exposition are three kinds used in elementary classes. 
Description presents the appearance of things; narration 
presents a series of actions or happenings; while exposition 
seeks to explain the meaning of things. For a satisfactory 
treatment of how to teach these and other kinds of elementary 



106 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

composition, see Maxwell and Johnston's School Composition. 
(American Book Company). 

202. Problems. — The difficulties or problems in teaching- 
composition may be summarized as follows : 

1. The selection of subjects, topics or themes. 

2. How to conduct the recitation preparatory to 

writing-. 

3. Criticism and correction. 

4. The use of models in 1, 2, 3. 

203. Selection of subjects. — Three considerations are suf- 
ficient. 

1. Principles. Same as in section 189. 

2. Correlation. Select subjects from history, geo- 

graphy and other grade work. This kind of 
selection comes under the principles in 1. 

3. Avoid such abstract subjects as Vanity, Ambi- 

tion, The Growth of Pessimism. This sug-- 
gestion is also under the principles in 1. 
Teachers are frequently asked for a positive 
suggestion on the selection of subjects, and so 
2 is given; for negative suggestion, use 3.' 

204. Some suitable subjects. 

FOURTH YEAR. 

Science. Coal and Its Uses. 

Geography. The Harbor of New York. 

History. Henry Hudson. 

Biography. Longfellow. 

Personal experience. A Visit to the Museum. 

FIFTH YEAR. 

Subjects similar to those in Fourth Year. 
Narrative. The Boyhood of Lincoln. 
Descriptive. The Making of a Base Ball. 

SIXTH YEAR. 

Advantages of the Panama Canal. 
The Aunt in Snow Bound. 



COMPOSITION 107 

Why I Like Whittier. 

The Necessity of Bathing^. 

What I Should Do with a Thousand Dollars. 

The History of Our Flag-. 

SEVENTH YEAR. 

Narration. My Progress in Pour Years. 

Description of a picture. The Signing of the De- 
claration of Independence. 

Exposition. The Uses of Our Forests. 

Argumentation. Virginia vs. Massachusetts in 
American Progress. 

Science. Wireless Teleg-raphy. 

History. The Decisive Effect of the Battle of 
Saratoga. 

Geography, History, and Literature in Evangeline. 

EIGHTH YEAR. 

My Favorite Character in the Deserted Village. 

The Kinds of Levers. 

My Opinion of Webster as an Orator. 

The Pow^er of Simple Words in the Gettysburg 

Speech. 
The Causes of the Mexican War. 

205. The model as a preparation for writing. — See specific di- 
rections in School Composition. We shall prepare the class 
for writing by studying, analyzing and imitating a model. 
Another exercise will deal wih the preparation of original 
material. 

206. The selection of a model. 

1. Select a model from some book in the class. 

Every pupil should have a copy in his hand. 
Why? See sections 317 and 318. 

2. Select a model that the class will appreciate. 

There can be no culture value in interpretation 
that lacks appreciation. 



108 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

3. Select a model having some rhetorical excellence 
such as clearness, ehoice of words, or good 
outline. 

207. The study of the model. — Suppose the model selected is 
"The American Indians," a prose selection in the class read- 
ing- books, 

1. Pupils read selection to get the general nature 

of the selection. 

2. Second reading for the more careful treatment of 

important parts, the aim being to bring about 
an appreciation of the beauty of the selection 
rather than to accumulate a fund of informa- 
tion concerning words or allusions. But there 
is special attention given to what words are 
used and how they are used; to structure, 
capitalization and punctuation of sentences ; 
to unity, continuity and topic sentence in each 
paragraph. This analytic study reveals the 
structure of the parts and the whole, and also 
enables the class to make an outline showing 
the thought or plan of the author. 

3. A third reading will give increased appreciation 

and leave the selection as a unit in the pupils' 
minds. 

208. Imitation of the model. — The study of the model gave us 
an outline. It shows the thought in the author's mind and 
the arrangement or plan in the selection. It follows, 

THE AMF:RICAN INDIANS. 

I. Introduction. Probable origin of the Indian race. 
II. Body. 

1. Physical appearance and dress. 

2. Manner of living; occupations, pleasures. 

3. Relation to the white people, as friend and as 

enemy. 

4. Future of the Indians. 



COMPOSITION 109 

III. Conclusion. A peculiar type of man in American life. 

Now have the pupils give the substance of the selection, 
using their ov^^n oral wording. 

Observe outline again. Take The Eskimo for a subject and 
write a composition according to this same outline. A kin- 
dred subject is considered better than the same subject as 
the latter invites too much use of verbal memory. 

209. The model in criticism. — Now the compositions on The 
Eskimo are ready for criticism, supposing that a day or more 
has elapsed since the compositions were written. Comparison 
with the model is the process; and the points to be observed are 
the ones observed in the study of the mode-l. This first criti- 
cism by comparison should be done by teacher and pupils 
working together. 

210. Outlines.— The study of the paragraph leads to the use 
of outlines. In the fourth grade the teacher should co-operate 
with pupils in making outlines and then have pupils compose 
orally on these outlines before writing. Some hold that this 
making of outlines produces mechanical, uninteresting and 
unimaginative writing; but, on the other hand, the weight of 
opinion favors the plan as a means of securing unity and con- 
tinuity of thought. 

211. Composition without model. — The time will come, of 
course, when pupils will write compositions without using a 
model as a preliminary preparation. The model is only a 
type, and so the model is not required after the type has be- 
come familiar. In such cases, a regular order of procedure 
may be used. 

1. Assignment of theme. 

2. Books should be read, lessons reviewed, subjects 

investigated; in short, information g-athered 
from all convenient sources. 

3. Oral composition for summarizing, condensing 

and organizing material. 



110 METTHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. Write outline. 

5. Write composition. 

212. Criticism of compositions. 

1. By pupil acting^ under general direction of 

teacher. Have first reading- for paragraph 
structure; second reading for sentence structure 
covering concord of subject and predicate, ad- 
jective and noun, pronoun and antecedent, etc; 
third reading for spelling of every Mrord. 

2. By use of the model. Typical composition read 

or u^ritten on board and then each pupil cor- 
rects his own. 

3. Interchange of compositions 

4. By the teacher. This is necessary once a month 

as a means of estimating the work of the class, 
but it is not approved for regular weekly 
criticism. It mortgages teacher's time which 
should be reserved for rest or change of work ; 
it violates the principle of self-activity of the 
pupil; it is practically useless unless the com- 
positions be returned and the pupils be led to 
avoid similar errors in the next composition. 

213. Suggestions on criticisms. 

1. Teach pupils to consult grammar, dictionary, 

book of synonyms, and any other helpful refer- 
ences. This will aid self-criticism and at the 
same time teach pupils how to study. 

2. Reject all slovenly work and, if due to careless- 

ness, have the composition rewritten. 

3. Do not try to read all compositions. Select a 

representative group and then make these the 
subject of criticism. 

4. Establish a standard of excellence and adhere 

to it. 



COMPOSITION 111 

5. Treat individual difficulties in brief, personal 

interviews. 

6. Give maximum praise for every indication of im- 

provement. 

7. Use constructive criticism. The child must think 

as a child and write as a child. 

8. Assist pupils to clear thinking-. The outline aids 

clearness. 

9. Use a simple code of marking-. One is given in 

School Composition, p. 223. 

214. Structural errors. — We do not expect pupils to acquire a 
finished literary style during- eight years in the elementary 
g-rades, but we do expect to find fewer structural errors from 
year to year. One cause for disappointment is the number of 
rules g-iven for g-uidance. Nearly all the points can be grouped 
under the sentence and the paragraph; and the only safe 
remedy for recurring errors is to return to a review as suggested 
in the next two paragraphs. 

1. The sentence. It is a matter of discussion 

whether the sentence or the paragraph should 
be considered the unit in composition. Reserv- 
ing the decision, the teacher must teach the 
individual sentence before pupils can become 
proficient in composition. Spelling, capitali- 
zation, punctuation should be observed in all 
grades; recognition of subject and predicate in 
primary grades; simple, compound and com- 
plex sentences with word, phrase, or clause 
modifiers in grammar grades. Neither sub- 
sequent construction nor criticism can be in- 
telligently done if pupils fail to master a 
working knowledge of the sentence. 

2. The paragraph. Viewing composition work as 

a whole, the paragraph is the unit of thought. 
Lower primary pupils may be able to think 



112 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

only in sentences, but pupils in grades four to 
six can understand the use of the paragraph. 
The concept of the paragraph is most easily- 
secured by the analytic study of a model. 
Such a study will reveal the writer's plan 
made up of beg-inning, middle and end; or, as 
the parts are called later, introduction, body 
and conclusion. An oral discussion of the plan 
or outline will lead to an interpretation of this 
framework of the parag-raph; and then, follow- 
ing- that outline, the pupils may write a para- 
graph; the last process is comparison and 
criticism. This exercise embodies analysis 
and synthesis. 

215. Pertinent questions answered. 

1. Should pupils be compelled to rewrite all composi- 
tions ? 

No. Such expenditure of time in the correction 
of errors does not seem prudent. Better write 
another composition and thus apply principles 
of correction. 
2 Should compositions ever be rewritten ? 

Yes, if carelessly done. Have the work done as 
extra work. If pupils write thirty compositions 
a term, it is thought useful to have four or five 
perfect compositions in the set. 

3. Are original drafts kept for reference as an indica- 

tion of progress? 
Yes. Many teachers prefer to have a separate 
book for composition so that the pupil may 
have a guide to his own progress. 

4. Are first copies written in ink or pencil ? 
Pencil in lower grades; ink in upper grades. 

5. When letters are written, does the addressing of the 

envelope (or rectangle representi?ig same) form 
Part of the exereise? 
Yes. 



COMPOSITION 113 

6. Do teachers allow pupils to consult dictionaries and 

other such aids during the composition lesson ? 
Yes. Teach pupils to use all helpful material. 

7. Should a model be constructed by the teacher ? 
No; make a selection from g-ood literature. 

8. Are errors due to carelessness or ignorance? 
Most of the errors are due to carelessness. The 

pupils rely upon the teachers to find and mark 
the errors. 

9. How long a time usually elapses between the writing 

of a composition and its correction by pupils f 
If possible, allow at least two days to elapse. 
Dr. Maxwell says that the correction of com- 
positions should not be made during- the same 
or the following- period. 

10. Does criticism, tend to check spontaneity and origi- 

nality ? 
With conscientious pupils, yes; with indifferent 
pupils, no. The tendency toward sympathetic, 
constructive criticism is not likely to produce 
unsatisfactory results. 

11. Do you ever have compositions on which no criticism 

is m,ade ? 
Yes, to encourag-e individuality. Let it be known 
in advance that the productions are to be read 
by the writer without oral or written criticism. 

12. When pupils correct the compositions of others, do 

you require the critics to sign their names ? 
Always. This allows the right of appeal to the 
critic or the teacher. It fosters criticism rather 
than fault-finding. 

13. Should teachers use colored pencil or black pen or 

pencil when they correct compositions personally? 
Colored pencil. Economy of time for teacher and 
pupil in reviewing- marking-. 



114 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

14. Do teachefs indicate errors, or actually correct them ? 
Indicate the errors. 

15. In what grade may self-correction be advantageously 

introduced ? 
As soon as pupils are capable of writing- a sen- 
tence, they should begin self-criticism. Their 
knowledge of self-criticism should increase 
with their g-eneral knowledge. It is a part of 
self-realization. Hence, self-criticism can be 
justified in all grades above the third. 

16. Is a time limit assigned ? 

Yes, in school ; on orig-inal composition at home, 
no. But it is advisable to habituate pupils to 
approximate time limits at home as well as in 
school. They must meet such requirements in 
business. 

17. Do you ever allow pupils to choose their subjects ? 
Yes, within specified limits. Unlimited choice 

leads to vacillation a-nd consequent loss of time. 

18. Should the best compositions be read at morning 

exercises ? 
Yes; this establishes an honor standard. 

19. Are your pupils encouraged to write poetry ? 

Yes, occasionally. Every class can produce 
some meritorious poems. 

20. (/) What is the relative value of composition in 

school work ? {2) How should outlines be used ? 
(j) Give an effectual method of criticism. {4) Dis- 
cuss the scope and method of correction. 

(1) Composition is one of the most important exer- 
cises in school work. It is a means of expres- 
sion in all the other studies, and it can be made 
an efficient test of general intellectual pro- 
gress. 

(2) Outlines should be used as guides in the selec- 
tion and arrangement of important points. 



COMPOSITION 115 

Pupils should be taught to make their own 
outlines by study and analysis of model com- 
positions. Take interesting selections from 
such writers as Hale, Irving, Alcott, Thoreau, 
or any others liked by the pupils; read the 
selections and make a list of the topics. Have 
children reconstruct stories from given outlines 
and then compare their compositions with the 
model. 

(3) Have compositions read in class and criticised 
favorably by teacher and pupils. Try to 
arouse the interest of the pupils by encourag- 
ing them to do their best to merit the approba- 
tion of their associates. 

(4) Teachers should not pass valuable time in 
correcting compositions. Make the pupils 
critics of their own work. In this way the 
pupils will learn to find their own errors, 
amend them as well as they can, and try to 
avoid similar errors in the future. Following 
are some rules to train pupils to criticise and 
correct their own compositions : '* (1) Give the 
pupil all needful books of reference, and teach 
him how to find what he wants. (2) Have the 
pupil look for only one class of errors at one 
time. He should examine (a) his outline; (b) 
his sentence structure; (c) his capitalization, 
punctuation, and spelling. This would neces- 
sitate three careful readings of his composi- 
tion." See Maxwell and Johnston's School 
Composition. 



Chapter XL Grammar. 



216. Value of technical grammar. — A third phase of language 
study in the elementary school is formal grammar. The 
works of literary art in the readers, re-inforced as they ought 
to be by supplementary reading at home of the whole works 
from which the selections for the school readers are made, will 
educate the child in the use of a higher and better English 
style. Technical grammar never can do this. Only famil- 
iarity with fine English works will insure one a good and 
correct style. But grammar is the science of language, and 
as the first of the seven liberal arts it has long held sway in 
school as the disciplinary study par excellence. A survey 
of its educational value, subjective and objective, usually pro- 
duces the conviction that it is to retain the first place in the 
future. Its chief objective advantage is that it shows the 
structure of language, and the logical forms of subject, predi- 
cate, and modifier, thus revealing the essential nature of 
thought itself, the most important of all objects because it is 
self-object. On the subjective or psychological side, grammar 
demonstrates its title to the first place by its use as a disci- 
pline in subtle analysis, in logical division and classification, 
in the art of questioning, and in the mental accomplishment 
of making exact definitions. Nor is this an empty, formal 
discipline, for its subject matter, language, is a product of the 
reason of a people not as individuals but as a social whole, 
and the vocabulary holds in its store of words the generalized 
experience of that people, including sensuous observation and 
reflection, feeling and emotion, instinct and volition. — Report 
of Committee of Fifteen, page 48. 

217. Scope of this chapter. — In this chapter it is not neces- 
sary to try to cover every point in grammar. Approved text 
books suggest suitable niethods of presentation in accordance 



GRAMMAR 117 

with the characteristic plan of development of such texts. It 
is necessary, however, to present some of the most important 
and most difficult parts; and so we have selected what may 
serve as types in the matter presented and in all related mat- 
ter. Thus the plan of teaching- the noun clause is a distinct 
type of mental procedure which may be followed in teaching- 
adjective clauses and adverb clauses. 

218. A habit of thinking.— One specific value of grammar is 
the habit of mental activity acquired by an orderly way of 
attacking each sentence. Teach children to read the sentence, 
to find the principal parts, to select and classify the modifiers, 
and then to dispose of the independent elements. Teach the 
fundamental facts; and make all pupils feel that a mastery of 
the simple sentence means a mastery of nearly all grammatic- 
al relations. In this way, grammar will not remain a 
synonym for what is difficult or impossible. 

219. Facts before conclusions. — In regard to mental processes, 
teachers are urged to habituate pupils to observe the facts 
first and then draw the conclusions. 

Consider this sentence: Pupils work faithfully. What part 
of speech is work? Work- asserts action; hence or therefore 
work is a verb. The other process : Work is a verb because 
it asserts action. The latter process promotes guessing; it 
puts responsibility upon teacher to acceptor reject the answer. 
The former process requires attention, thought, judgment. It 
is the scientific method : observation, facts, conclusion. Logi- 
cally the conclusion should be stated last. 

220. The syllogism. — A closer analysis of the mental process 
just mentioned shows that pupils are constantly using the 
syllogism. Thus in the sentence given, what part of speech 
is faithfully ? The child observes the word and then his thought 
follows this form : 

Whatever modifies a verb is an adverb. Major premise. 
Faithfully modifies the verb work. Minor premise. 
Therefore faithfully is an adverb. Conclusion. 



118 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

221. Fundamental facts in grammar. 

1. The typical Eng-lish sentence has two principal 

parts, subject and predicate. The subject 
may be noun or pronoun; the predicate must be 
a verb. 

2. All modifiers of the subject have the nature of 

adjectives. 

3. All modifiers of the predicate have the nature of 

adverbs. 

4., A sentence may have a third principal part, 
namely, a complement. An object complement 
may be noun or pronoun; attribute complement 
may be noun, pronoun or adjective. All of 
these parts of speech are known from drill on 
the first three fundamental facts. 

5. Simple sentences may be combined into compound 
or complex sentences by the use of connectives. 

222. Development based upon fundamental facts. 

1. Flowers bloom. All is new : sentence, subject, 

predicate, noun, verb. 

2. Pretty flowers bloom early. Known, same as 1; 

unknown, adjective and adverb. 

3. The pretty flowers of spring bloom early in our 

field. Here we have added another adjective, 
a pronoun, a preposition and phrases. The 
adjective and the adverbial uses of these 
phrases are known from 2. The phrase is 
simply a new form. 

4. The pretty flowers of spring bloom early and late in 

our fields. Conjunction is new. 

5. Children like daisies. 
The daisy has petals. 
Children pluck them. 

The daisy is the day's eye. 
The daisy is pretty. 



GRAMMAR 119 

Who brought the daisies? It was she. 
Here we have the purpose to present third prin- 
cipal part of sentence; new, names object and 
attribute; related old, nouns and pronouns and 
adjectives in third part of sentence. 
6. Flowers bloom. Simple. 
Summer comes. Simple. 

Flowers bloom and summer comes. Compound. 
Flowers bloom when summer comes. Complex. 
Note 1. These sug-g-estions embody a basis or type of pro- 
cedure in studying- all the related parts cf a sentence. This 
matter is merely an outline ; more material is required for a 
full presentation. 

Note 2. The interjection may be studied with nominative 
absolute and other independent elements. 

Note 3. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon a 
thorough knowledg-e of the simple sentence. Master the 
declarative sentence first, and then the other kinds from form 
of expression appear as easy modifications of the declarative 
form. All the parts of speech, too, may be studied in the 
simple sentence. A knowledg-e of nouns, adjectives and verbs 
is a direct approach to participles and infinitives; and adding- 
the adverb, you have the foundation for all kinds of phrases 
and clauses. See development lessons following-. 

Note 4. The process of development mentioned employs the 
maxims known to related unknown, simple to complex, from 
whole to parts. Interest is stimulated and apperception is 
assured. Teachers understand, of course, that the study of 
the simple sentence means more than analysis. Synthesis of 
g-iven parts, orig-inal construction, reconstruction, filling- 
blanks, and the various composition exercises will all be used 
to satisfy the needs of the pupils. 

Note 5. While it is advisable to use material that is 
familiar and interesting-, there is no reason for using sentences 
that do not express a valuable thought. The following 
sentences are suitable : 



120 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

1. Birds sing-. 

2. Respect the flag-. 

3. Bees g-ather honey. 

4. The whale is an animal. 

5. Plants need air and moisture. 

6. Fawns are g-raceful. 

7. The Mohawk valley is fertile. 

8. The Mayflower sailed from Plymouth. 

9. Icebergs from the Arctic Ocean melt in the Gulf 

Stream. 

10. Magellan's ship sailed around the globe. 

11. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called 

New Netherlands. 

12. Staten Island has an area of nearly sixty square 

miles. 

223. Oral analysis. — This process does not receive sufiicient 
attention. When used according to an orderly plan, it re- 
quires close, accurate thinking; it is a means to mental and 
physical poise; and it has the twofold value of developing the 
power of oral and written expression at the same time it is in- 
terpreting the oral or written expression of others. The 
diagram becomes more useful when it is supplemented by oral 
analysis. 

224. Diagrams. — A diagram is a graphic representation of 
the grammatical relations in the sentence. Some systems are 
too elaborate for practical use, but a simple and reasonable 
system of- diagrams means economy of time, interested self- 
activity of pupils, and co-ordinated multiple sense instruction. 
The rule of limitation of use may be put this way : Use 
diagrams whenever they satisfy the purpose of instruction in 
grammar. It is an abuse of diagrams to make them displace 
all oral analysis and parsing. 

225. Drill. — The schools fail to give adequate drill. In the 
effort to cover the assigned limit of work, teachers present new 
matter day after day and then wonder why pupils have not 



GRAMMAR 121 

retained the matter which was so carefully presented. The 
averag-e pupil will not g-ive himself the drill alone; drill is 
essentially the work of the recitation period. It should be 
simple, specific, frequent; and instead of repeating- in all the 
lessons in this chapter, we offer the following- sug-g-estions for 
kinds of drill : 

1. Use sentences that clearly illustrate the point of 

the lesson. Unnecessary elements in the 
sentence are likely to draw the attention away 
from the one point under consideration. This 
is specific, deductive application to complete 
the inductive process. It is the passing from 
the g-eneral notion to the particular notion. 

2. Application in sentences found in the grammar. 

Habituate pupils to use the text-book as author- 
ity in g-rammar. 

3. Use sentences in history, g-eog-raphy, reader, etc. 

This is another attempt to show pupils where 
to find suitable material. It tends toward in- 
dependent study, as every pupil has a book; 
it permits physical adaptability, according- to 
sig-hl, comfortable position, etc.; it is correla- 
tion of studies. 

4. Synthesis of sentences from given lists of words, 

phrases, or other elements. This appeals to 
the constructive instinct of children. It may 
also be used as a stimulus in competitive 
effort. 

5. Pupils find sentences in books or construct 

original sentences. 

6. Memorize mottoes, maxims, or other quotations 

that will serve as typical illustrations. 

7. Apply grammatical knowledge in writing and in 

criticising compositions. 

8. Pupils prepare questions for oral or written re- 

view or examinations. A good question re- 



122 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

quires a knowledge of the subject-matter; and 
experience proves that the averag-e class will 
make such a requisite mastery if the teacher 
will use the questions furnished by the class. 
9. Correlation as a preliminary drill in primary 
grades before beginning the study of formal 
grammar. "Another place where correlation 
may be applied is in language work. To il- 
lustrate this, take the type sentences in one of 
the primary grades. It is an important thing 
for the teacher to know that all sentences can 
be reduced to five primary types, and it is im- 
portant to the child— not to be told that there 
are five types — that information is not of any 
use to him ; but it is important for him to know 
how to make sentences according to those five 
types. The first type of sentence is simplified 
by the expression, what things do, as, The dog 
barks, Birds fly; the second, what things are, 
as. Men and dogs are animals. The third in- 
dicates what quality things are; the fourth, 
what things do to things; and the fifth, what 
is done to things. All the material used in 
other studies can be introduced in the making 
of sentences after these models. All thought 
must be expressed by one or the other of these 
five forms, and in thus correlating the study 
of the sentence the work done in the other 
subjects is being reviewed, while at the same 
time the foundation for future grammar studies 
is being laid." — Maxwell on Course of Study, 
p. 45, McEvoy's Science of Education. 

226. Parsing literary masterpieces.— The value of parsing as 
an educative process should be approved as only one of the 
useful exercises in grammar. The sentences used in parsing 



GRAMMAR 123 

must satisfy interest and culture. The question arises, then, 
whether we should use literary masterpieces for this purpose. 
Does the dissection by analysis and parsing- destroy the 
literary value of the selection ? We quote from the Report of 
the Committee of Fifteen, page 49. 

"A training for four or five years in parsing and grammat- 
ical analysis practiced on literary works of art (Milton, 
Shakspere, Tennyson, Scott) is a training of the pupil into 
habits of indifference toward and neglect of the genius dis- 
played in the literary work of art, and into habits of imperti- 
nent and trifling attention to elements employed as material 
or texture, and a corresponding neglect of the structural 
form which alone is the work of the artist. A parallel to this 
would be the mason's habit of noticing only the brick and 
mortar, or the stone and cement, in his inspection of the 
architecture, say of Sir Christopher Wren. A child over- 
trained to analyze and classify shades of color — examples of 
this one finds occasionally in a primary school whose specialty 
is 'objective teaching' — -might in later life visit an art 
gallery and make an inventory of colors without getting even 
a glimpse of a painting as a work of art. Such overstudy 
and misuse of grammar as one finds in the elementary school, 
it is feared, exists to some extent in secondary schools and 
even in colleges, in the work of mastering the classic authors." 

227. False syntax. — There is some difference of opinion about 
the advisability of using faulty sentences for correction. The 
objection is supported by the argument that the child is more 
likely to remember the incorrect form than the correct form. 
He will image the incorrect form by visualization instead of 
remembering the correct form which he reaches through ab- 
stract reasoning. But this argument is not convincing. The 
writing- of the correct form gives the pupils the same oppor- 
tunities for visualization; and, besides, comparison and con- 
trast will intensify the impression of the correct form. Another 
consideration in favor of using false syntax is the fact that 



124 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

nearly all the leading- text-books in grammar contain such 
exercises. See section 256. 

*'The author is utterly at a loss to conceive on what prin- 
ciple the introduction of faulty sentences for correction can be 
objected to. Specimens of bad spelling- for correction are 
injurious, because, in English, spelling is not reducible to 
fixed rules, but is for the most part a matter of simple recollec- 
tion, and if the eye gets accustomed to the look of ill-spelt 
words, it is often difficult to recollect the correct mode of spell- 
ing them. Syntactical errors are of a 'totally different kind. 
They admit of being corrected on fixed principles; and as the 
learner is pretty sure to meet with numerous examples of 
faulty sentences, both in conversation and in reading, it seems 
desirable that he should have some practice in the correction 
of those mistakes which are of most frequent occurrence. Those 
who object to exercises of this kind should, to be consistent, 
exclude from books on log-ic all specimens of fallacies given 
for the purpose of correction. Yet those who have studied and 
taught logic are aware that few exercises are more bene- 
ficial." — Mason's English Grammar, Ed. 1861, p. 173. 

228. Types. — The material furnished in these lessons is in- 
tended to give one sound method of presenting each topic, but 
teachers are not supposed to think that there is no other ma- 
terial or no other way that can be considered acceptable. No 
matter what the topic for presentation may be, a tactful teacher 
will find other ways of adapting the work to individuals and 
to classes. 

229. Parts of speech. Lesson on the noun. — The one funda- 
mental fact to be impressed in teaching the parts of speech is 
that words are classi Red according to their use in the sentence. 
Pupils who work upon this basis find it necessary to observe 
the use of a word in every instance rather than to rely upon 
mere memory in giving definitions. Another point which 
needs emphasis is that the words must be used in sentences. 
No word can be classified as a part of speech in grammar un- 



GRAMMAR 125 

til that word is given a correct use in a sentence. Under this 
interpretation the teaching- of nouns, pronouns, or other parts 
of speech from miscellaneous lists of words cannot be justified. 
The old way of teaching the parts of speech required pupils 
to memorize definitions and then apply those definitions. It 
was the deductive method. Modern investigation of the process 
of learning requires the inductive method, as we have already 
shown. The same general plan of teaching all the parts of 
speech is therefore a combination of inductive and deductive. 
Let us take a lesson on the noun. 

DEVELOPMENT LESSON ON THE NOUN. 

I. Preparation. The preparation in this lesson illus- 
trates an instance where the teacher should not 
pass much time in reviewing the work already 
covered in grammar. It is possible that pupils 
know the sentence, the subject and the predi- 
cate, but it is doubtful if much time passed 
upon reviewing these three terms would serve 
as a useful preparation for a lesson on the 
^ definition of the noun. Perhaps the best 

preparation in a lesson of this kind is to go 
directly to the presentation after telling the 
pupils that we are beginning to make an efl'ort 
to tell the names of all the kinds of words used 
in speaking and writing. 
II. Presentation. 

1. Mt. Vernon is in Virginia. 

2. Mt. Vernon was Washington's home. 

3. Mt. Vernon is near the Potomac River. 

4. The house has a large porch. 

5. High columns support the roof. 

6. Martha Washington had a pet cat. 

7. A hole was cut in the door for the cat to enter 

Martha's bedroom. 

8. An old negro watches Washington's tomb. 

9. The tomb is locked.. 



126 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

10. The keys were thrown into the Potomac River. 
This series of sentences gives enough name words 
to be used in developing- the definitions. The 
series of sentences form one general thought 
which may be a source of interest to young 
children if the teacher will fill out some of the 
details suggested. It is not necessary to ask 
and answer questions here ; teachers can use 
their own ways. 
III. Application. Similar sentences may be used in ap- 
plying the definition that a word used as a 
name is a noun. The use of simple sentences 
will give drill enough for one lesson. Suc- 
ceeding lessons should employ sentences made 
from lists of words furnished and also original 
sentences constructed entirely by the pupils. 

230. Predicate adjective and adverb modifiers distinguished. 
I. Aim. To determine the correct use of the predicate 
adjective and the adverb modifier. 
II. Preparation. Define and illustrate subject, predicate, 
noun, verb, adjective, adverb and adverb of 
manner. 
III. Presentation. 

1. That boy appears prompt. 

2. That boy appears promptly. 

3. The sun shines bright in my old Kentucky home. 

4. The sun shines brightly on Kentucky homes. 

5. The horses are running wild on the prairies. 

6. The horses are running wildly from the prairie 

fire. 

7. The ship returned safe. 

8. The ship returned safely through the rocky 

channel. 

9. The pupils are faithful. 

10. The pupils worked faithfully. 



GRAMMAR 127 

The presentation is simply an application or drill 
upon the definitions called for in the prepara- 
tion. The adjectives in sentences 1, 3, 5, 7, and 
9 denote a condition of the subject; the adverbs 
in sentences 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 express manner 
of performing an act. This distinction sug- 
gests the rule. Use the predicate adjective to 
denote a condition of the subject; use the adverb 
modifier to express manner. 
IV. Drill. Recall the verbs generally followed by an at- 
tribute complement, namely, be, become, ap- 
pear, seem, feel, look. 

1. Be kind. 

2. Try to become courteous. 

3. You appear well. 

4. You work well. 

5. This distinction seems easy. 

6. Do you feel good ? 

7. Stand and sit erect. 

8. The door stands open. 

9. You will grow taller. 
10. You will grow rapidly. 

For further drill use the device allowing a choice and have 
each choice justified. 

1. awkward, awkwardly. The blind musician 

felt for a place to rest. 

2. good, well. The child worked on his lessons. 

3. glad, gladly. The children appeared when 

they were promoted. 

4. strong, strongly. The cable is made enough 

to support a ton. 

5. kind, kindly. The teacher spoke to the class. 

Correct these errors and give reasons : 

1. How are you ? I am nicely. 

2. She looks beautifully. 

3. The team played good. 



128 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. The food .tastes very nicely. 

5. Start quick and walk slow. 

231. Personal pronoun and relative pronoun.— This exercise is 
put under one treatment to show the value of pronouns in the 
economy of expression. There is material enough here for 
two lessons. 

I. Aim. To show that personal and relative pronouns 
are sources of economy and euphony in expres- 
sion. 
II. Presentation. 

SECTION I. 

1. Lincoln was President. Lincoln delivered the 

Gettysburg- Speech. 

2. This is Frank. Frank's declamation won first 

honors. 

3. Mason was an active boy. Mr. Loring- liked 

Mason. 

4. See that bicycle. Harry Ransom made that 

bicycle. 

5. The pocketbook was the prize. The pocketbook 

was given to the best speller. 

SECTION II. 

1. Lincoln was President. He delivered the Gettys- 

burg Speech. 

2. This is Frank. His declamation won first honors. 

3. Mason' was an active boy. Mr. Loring liked hint. 

4. See that bicycle. Harry Ransom made it. 

5. The pocketbook was the prize. It was given to 

the best speller. 

SECTION III. 

By the use of the relative pronoun each pair of sen- 
tences can be combined into one sentence. 
1. Lincoln was the President who delivered the 
Gettysburg Speech. 



GKAMMAR 129 

2. This is Frank whose declamation won first 

honors. 

3. Mason was the active bo}^ whom Mr. Loring" 

liked. 

4. See that bicycle which Harry Ransom made. 

5. The pocketbook was the prize that was g-iven to 

the best speller. 
The sentences given in the three sections are closely related 
in wording and meaning so that pupils may employ their 
energies upon the differences in wording. Section II illus- 
trates how a personal pronoun may avoid the repetition of 
nouns; the last five sentences illustrate how relative pronouns 
avoid the repetition of nouns and also improve the expression 
by uniting- the two parts into one good sentence. Test the 
three sections by the sense of hearing and notice the pleasing 
effect in the last five expressions. 

232. Shall and will, should and would. — In early English 
shall was the past tense of a verb meaning- to oioc or to be undci' 
obligation to do. In its present use with other verbs to form 
the future tenses, shall has lost nearly all of its early sense of 
oblig-ation excepting^ in the second and third persons. Shall 
in the first person denotes simply future time; in the second 
and third persons, shall denotes promise, command or threat. 

Will is from another old verb meaning- to choose, to desire, 
or to be ivilliiig to do. It used to show that the subject had 
the power to determine the action. Will in the first person 
still retains the original meaning^ but not so in second and 
third persons. In these two will denotes simply future time. 

Rule for shall and will. In the first person, shall expresses 
simply future time; in second and third persons, shall ex- 
presses promise, command, or threat. Will in the first person 
expresses promise, command, or threat; in second and third 
persons, will expresses simply future time. 

1. I shall go to Europe this summer. 

2. You shall remain here to study. 

10 



130 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

3. He shall study this lesson in grammar. 

4. I will help you. 

5. You will be ready for me. 

6. He will work with us. 

Should is the past tense of shall. Should has the same 
general uses as shall, but should, in all persons, retains its 
orig-inal meaning- of duty or obligation. 

Would, the past tense of will, is governed by the general 
rules applying to will. 

Give reasons for shall, will, should and would. 

1. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

2. We shall study. 

3. We will study. 

4. If I can't pray, I will not make believe. — Long- 

fellow. 

5. She could not think, but would not cease to 

speak. — Crabbe. 

6. There is no if in the case. That we shall suc- 

ceed is certain. — Nelson. 

7. The union must and shall be preserved. — Jack- 

son. 

8. Heaven never helps the man who will not act. — 

Sophocles. ^ 

9. I would rather be right than be president. — Clay. 
10. Herodotus wrote as it was natural he should 

write. — Macaulay. 

233. Modes. — The study of all English presupposes the de- 
sire to interpret good English and to acquire facility in writ- 
ing and speaking good English. Grammarians differ so much 
about the number of modes and about the distinctions between 
modes that it is not necessary to take a young class into these 
mooted questions. Our general plan of development is one of 
comparison and contrast. So it is in getting the different 
kinds of sentences from form of expression, in distinguishing 
attribute complement and adverb modifier, in developing the 



GRAMMAR 131 

function of participles and infinitives. So it should be in 
teaching- modes. The declarative form of the simple sentence 
furnishes an illustration of the indicative mode. The same 
thought expressed in the interrog-ativeform is another illustra- 
tion of the indicative mode. A thought involving- doubt must 
be expressed in the subjunctive form; while the imperative 
sentence g-ives the verb in the imperative mode. The following- 
sentences will serve in this development : 

1. The pupils study g-rammar. 

2. The pupils are studying grammar. 

3. Do primary pupils study grammar ? 

4. If you study well, you will understand g-rammar. 

5. Study dilig-ently one hour each day. 

In helping- pupils to discriminate the modes it is useful to 
impress upon them that the indicative mode expresses ^ fact; 
the subjunctive mode a doubt ; the imperative mode 3.coni7nand. 
The doubt is the only point that is really new in this process 
of discrimination. The pupils are familiar with the expres- 
sions in the declarative form and the imperative form from 
their study of sentences from form of expression. Hence, as 
an aid in recog-nizing- the expression of doubt, direct attention 
to the use of the connectives zf, though, except, unless. Note 
that they simply aid in introducing a clause that is likely to 
contain a verb in the subjunctive mode, but the connectives 
alone do not make the subjunctive mode. Mode is a modification 
of the verb, not a modification of the conjunction. 
III. Drill. 

1. I hate to see things done by halves. If it be right, 

do it boldly; if it be wrong, leave it undone. — 
Gilpin. 

2. If you know the quotation, you can recite it. 

3. Learn this definition well, and then you can ap- 

ply it easily. 

4. Do you understand the indicative mode? 

5. If you can distinguish the expression of a fact 

from the expression of a supposition, you can 



132 MKTHODS IN EDUCATION 

distinguish the indicative mode from the sub- 
junctive mode. 

6. The subject of a verb in the imperative mode is 

seldom expressed. 

7. If you are here, you w^ill understand these def- 

initions. (Fact; we i^nov^ that you are here). 

8. If you are present tomorrow^ we shall drill upon 

modes in grammar. (Doubt; we are not cer- 
tain about your iittendance tomorrow ). 

pakticiplf:S and inkinitives. 

234. The meaning of terms used.— Much confusion arises from 
the different classifications of participles and infinitives. This 
lack of agreement does not produce serious consequences in a 
school where any good text-book is followed as an authority, 
but it is a matter of inconvenience to students who have to pass 
various examinations. We meet the terms verbals, adjectival 
verbals, verbal nouns, participles and infinitives. Any word 
derived from a verb may be called a verbal. Some gram- 
marians adopt'verbals as the general heading and then classify 
infinitives, gerunds and peirticiples as the three subordinate 
kinds. So it is done in Longmans' English Grammar edited 
by George J. Smith of the New York City Board of Examiners. 
Maxwell treats infinitives as a mode of the verb and then puts 
the gerund and the participal under the verbals. Milne con- 
siders the gerund a form of the infinitive. Reed and Kellogg 
prefer an explicit wording, such as, a participle used as an 
adjective and a participle used as a noun. For the purpose 
of clearness, we summarize : 

VERBALS. 

1. Participle used as an adjective; verbal adjective; 

or simply the participle. 

2. Participle used as a noun; verbal noun ; or 

gerund, 



GRAMMAK 133 

REFERENCES 

Long-mans' Eng-lish Grammar, 144. 

Maxwell's Advanced Lessons in Eng-lish Grammar, 

144, 155. 
Milne's An Eng-lish Grammar, 189. 
Reed and Kellogg-'s Higher Lessons in English, 65. 

235. Participle. — There are three points to be used as a 
basis in this lesson : verb, adjective, noun. In this lesson we 
present the adjective participle. 

I. Aim. To teach the participle combining- the nature 
of a verb and the nature of an adjective. 

11. Preparation. Review definitions and illustrations of 
verbs and adjectives. 

III. Presentation. 

1. The sun rises. 

2. The sun dispels the mists. 

3. The sun rising- dispels the mists. 

4. Evang-eline wandered from place to place. 

5. Evang-eline, wandering- from place to place, 

sought her lover. 

6. Wandering- from place to place, she patiently 

waited her lover. 

7. You recited well. 

8. I heard you reciting- well. 

9,. We, being- weary, rested ourselves in the shade. 

Rapid drill upon subject and predicate in each 

of the first three sentences. Emphatic mention 

of predicate verb in each of the three sentences. 

Then direct attention to r?'smg in sentence 3. 

T. What part of speech is rising? 

P. Rising is a verb. 

T. What is the predicate verb in this sentence? 

P. Dispels is the predicate verb. 

T. Then are there two predicate verbs here? 



134 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

If pupils say yes, contrast predicate verb rises in 
sentence 1 and rising-. If pupils answer no, 
g-o at once to the question to bring- out the ad- 
jective use. Is the subject sun modified or un- 
modified ? 

P. Sun is modified by rising-. 

T. What part of speech, then, is rising-? 

P. Rising- modifies the noun sun; hence, it is an 
adjective. 

T. Rising is used as two parts of speech, a verb 
and an adjective. We say it participates or 
partakes of two natures, and so it is a parti- 
ciple. 
Silent reading- of sentences 4, 5, 6. Give time for 
thoug-ht. The development already done should 
sug-gest to all pupils what they are to find in 
these three sentences. They have before them 
what, where and how to study. 

T. Who has found another participle? If all fail, 
repeat process of passing- from predicate verb 
in 4 to adjective participle in 5. 

T. Find the adjective participle in 6. 

P. Wandering is an adjective participle. 

Another P. Wandering is a form of the verb modify- 
ing the subject pronoun she; hence, wandering 
is an adjective participle. 
If any pupils have failed to discover that the 
participle modifies a pronoun, this last an- 
swer should impress that fact. It is informa- 
tion from a classmate, not from the teacher or 
from circuitous development. 
Proceed in similar manner with the other sen- 
tences. Then have definition formed. A form 
of a verb, not a predicate, having the nature 
of an adjective and a verb, is an adjective 
participle. 



GRAMMAR 135 

IV. Drill. 

1. The pupils studying- grammar are attentive. 

2. Do you know the definition taug-ht yesterday ? 

3. See the pupils writing- the lesson ? 

•4. Having- finished the lesson, the class marched to 

the gymnasium. 
5. I, knowing- your ambition, offered you an oppor- 
tunity for promotion. 
Constructive drill follows this analytic drill. 

236. Uses of participles. 

1. As a noun. 

( a) Subject and attribute. Begging a courtesy 
is selling liberty. 

(b) Object of verb. Pupils enjoy studying his- 
tory. 

(c) Object of preposition. We receive g-ood by 
doing g-ood. 

(d) Apposition. Invention, applying old ideas to 
new uses, benefits mankind. 

(e) Independent. Generally speaking, interest 
sustains attention. 

2. As an adjective. 

(a) Modifying- noun. Lessons learned from ex- 
perience are costly. 

(b) Modifying- pronoun. Hearing your voice, I 
returned. 

237. Distinctions required. — The student must distinguish the 
mere adjective from the participle used as an adjective, and 
the mere noun from the participle used as a noun. The mere 
adjective does not have the nature of adjective and verb. It is 
simply an adjective and it usually precedes the word it 
modifies. 

1. Concealed resentment is dangerous. 

2. Coming events cast their shadows before. 

3. His soul was the pleasing companion of his body. 



136 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. Beauty is onl^^ a doitbting good and shining 

g-lass. 

5. The growing plant needs lig"ht, heat and mois- 

ture. 
The participle used as an adjective has the double nature 
of verb and adjective, usually follows the word it modifies, 
and may have the same comj)lements and modifiers that verbs 
have, 

1. Keep the pupils itiorking. 

2. Start the ball rolling^ 

3. The complement is the part ccnnpJcting the sen- 

tence, 

4. Participles, or the words /c?r/(^/v>/^<,'- of the nature 

of two parts of speech, have many uses. 

5. Here is a paper neatly written, properly punc- 

tuated, carefully thought out, and placed on 
the teacher's desk at the appointed time. 
The mere noun has a sing-le nature. It is often preceded by 
the and followed by a phrase introduced by of. 

1. The hand ting of money pleases some people. 

2. Angry /ee/ing is betrayed by the countenance. 

3. The mastery of grammar is a difficult undertak- 

ing. 

4. The groaning of the prisoners and the clanking 

of chains were heard. 

5. Our pupils study drawing, sewing, and physical 

training. 
It is argued by some that when drawing, sewing, etc., are 
simply the names of subject-matter in the recitation they are 
nouns. Other authorities hold that as long as such words pos- 
sess anything of the nature of verbs they are still to be 
classed as verbals. Thus Maxwell in his Advanced Gram- 
mar, page 155, classes drawing as a gerund. 
John learns drawing. 
Walking is healthy exercise. 



GRAMMAR 137 

To avoid mooted points on examinations, tlie student is ad- 
vised to use an object after drawing-, sin«-ing-, etc., if he wishes 
to classify those words under g-erunds. 

1. The pupils practice drawing- natural objects. 

2. The children enjoy sing-ing- song-s. 

3. Do you enjoy reading- English history ? 

4. Writing- good English is a pleasing exercise. 

5. Spelling- ordinary words is not too difficult a 

task. 
The gerund, or participle, used as a noun, has the twofold 
nature 6f noun antl verb, implies or assumes action without 
asserting- it, and may take modifiers and complements like 
those of a predicate verb. 

1. We should encourag-e reading g-ood books. 

2. My goi7ig will depend upon your coining. 

3. Persuading by kindness is sometimes the making 

of hard tasks for one's self. 

4. Your sftidying now will prevent your a'orrying 

at the close of the term. 

5. In carefully j?^;"(^^'^^i';"/>z^ every assigned lesson one 

is doing- one's duty to the class and to the 
school. 

238. Drill on participle used as adjective ; verbal, or verbal ad- 
jective. 

1. Children come rejoicing. 

2. He fell at his master's feet, weeping. 

3. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

4. Your credit being good, I will trust you. 

5. I, being your guardian, expected to have my way. 

6. Rising to reply, Washington stood blushing and 

stammering. 

7. The treaty having been signed, trade was re- 

sumed with Spain. 

8. Pronouns denoting the person speaking are of the 

first person. 



138 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

9. The reg-ion drained by a river system is called 

the river basin. 
10. Columbus, seeking- the back door of Asia, found 
himself knocking- at the front door of America. — 
J. R. Lowell. 

239. Drill on participles used as nouns; gerunds, or verbal nouns. 

1. Let us beware of losing- our enthusiasm. 

2. Doing- well depends upon doing- completely. 

3. What do you think of his writing- that letter ? 

4. By writing slowly you may learn to write 

legibly. 

5. Forsaking- evil companions is often the first step 

in reform. 

6. All students should form the habit of reading- 

poetry. 

7. The object in sailing west was to find a shorter 

route to India. 

8. He that is g-ood at making- excuses is seldom 

g-ood for anything- else. — Franklin. 

9. Being- in a ship is like being in a jail with a 

chance of being drowned.— Johnson. 
10. Talking is like playing a harp; there is as much 
in laying the hands on the strings to stop their 
vibrations as in twanging them to bring out 
their music. — Holmes. 

240. Drill on participle used as a mere adjective. — Here the 
twofold nature is not considered; the verbal forms should be 
parsed as adjectives. 

1. The breaking waves dashed high. 

2. The creeping night stole up the hills. 

3. Education is the moulding force of life. 

4. Here sailing ships delight the wandering eye. 

5. Now toward the early dawning east 

We speed our course away, 
With eager minds- and joyful hearts, 
To meet the rising day. 



GRAMMAR 139 

There, as we turn our wondering- eyes, 

We view one constant show, — 
Above, around, the circling- skies, 

The rolling- seas below. 

— Cape Cod Song-. 

241. Drill on participle used as a mere noun. — Notice that these 
forms are used to name an act rather than to express an act. 

1. Slow traveling- is tiresome. 

2. The cackling of g-eese saved Rome. 

3. The visitors joined in the singing. 

4. Giving is more blessed than receiving. 

5. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

6. The shearing of the sheep in Australia is done 

by machinery. 

7. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of 

the sun. — Longfellow. 

8. The treatment of drowning is simply to perform 

artificial respiration. — Overton. 

9. Drawing, reading, writing, spelling, physical 

training and declamation come in the after- 
noon. 
10. The firing of signal guns was telegraphing by 
sound. It used only the hearing. But there 
were other ways of telegraphing that used the 
sight. — E. Eggleston. 

242. Uses of infinitives. 

1. As a noun. 

(a) Subject. To siic is to believe. 

(b) Attribute. To see is to believe. ■ 

(c) Object of verb. Pupils like to sing. 

(d) Object of preposition. We are about to sing. 

(e) Appositive. It is easy to find i2^x\\.. 

(f) Independent. Every object has its face, so 
to speak. 

2. As an adjective. 



140 mp:thods in education 

(a) Modifying- a noun. I have a lesson to teach. 

(b) Modifying- a pronoun. Teach them to think. 

3. As an adverb. 

(a) Modifying- a verb. They came to study. 

(b) Modifying- an adjective. They are eag-er to 
study. 

(c) Modifying an adverb. The fruit is ripe 
enoug-h to eat. 

243. Drill on infinitives used as nouns. 

1. Never fear to do rig-ht. 

2. Learn to govern yourself. 

:3. Your aim should be to g-overn yourself. 

4. It is not impossible to g-overn yourself. 

5. To g-overn yourself is a duty in citizenship. 

6. It is never too late to mend. 

7. It is not all of life to live. 

8. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

9. To dispute about trifles is foolish. 

10. It was proposed to tax the colonies. 

11. To be just is easier than to be g-enerous. 

12. To be plain with you, you have not tried. 

13. It is helpful to study the life of Lincoln. 

14. To submit to insult is to g-ive occasion for it. 

15. To cultivate kindness is a valuable part of the 

business of life. — Johnson. 

16. In g-reat crises, it is a woman's special lot to 

soften our misfortune. — Napoleon Bonaparte. 

244. Drill on infinitives used as adjectives. 

1. Have you time to study g-rammar? 

2. Alg-er's stories seem to suit boys. 

3. Ask them to sing- patriotic song-s. 

4. Pupils have a desire to appear well. 

5. Columbus did much to calm the sailors' fears. 

245. Drill on infinitives used as adverbs. 

1. There is work enough to do. 



GRAMMAR 141 

2. Are you anxious to g^overn yourself? 

3. She is too sensible to be flattered. 

4. You should strive to govern yourself. 

5. You are old enough to govern yourself. 

6. I paused to observe the bird's proceedings. 

7. Call to see me if you happen to pass this way. 

8. Irving's w^ritings v^ere the first to make Ameri- 

can literature popular in England. 

9. Every morning the Persian wife used to kneel 

at tlie feet of her husband and ask nine times, 
"What do you wish iliat I shoiiUl do?" 

246. The infinitive without to.— The verbs h/<i, (/arc, fceL 

hear, let, make, need, see, behold, and a few others, are gener- 
ally followed by the infinitive without to. 

1. The teacher bade the pupils come at one o'clock. 

2. Would you dare swim in the ocean ? 

3. Can yon feel yourself grow ? 

4. Did you hear your mother call you ? 

5. Let music swell the breeze. 

6. Make yourself speak distinctly. 

7. The first division need not do this home work. 

8. Can you see the flag ■7va7>c? 

9. Behold the soldiers march in solid ranks. 
10. Watch me diagra/n this sentence. 

247. Development: Words, phrases, clauses.— This develop- 
ment shows how to proceed from the known to the related 
unknown. This lesson aims to secure di LTerent forms of ex[}res- 
sion for the same thought; an exercise in amplification. 

I. Aim to increase knowledge of phrases and clauses. 
II. Preparation. Review definitions of phrase and clause. 
III. Presentation. Recall the simple sentence of two words, 
subject and predicate; then the added adjective 
modifier and the adverb modifier. Have fol- 
lowing sentences on board : 
1. The athlete is a strong man. 



142 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

2. The athlete is a man of great strength. 

3. The athlete is a man who has great strength. 

4. Study here. 

5. Study /;/ this school. 

6. Study while you are in school. 

7. Tell us an historical story. 

8. Tell us a story about history. 

9. Tell us a story which relates to history. 

10. The prince Y\y^^ foolishly. 

11. The prince lived in a foolish manner. 

12. The prince lived as a fool lives. 

Pupils know^ definitions of parts of sentences, parts of 
speech, phrase and clause. Now impress v^^ord, phrase and 
clause as the three kinds of g-rammatical QX&va^n\.^ from form. 

All read sentence 1. Individuals name parts of sentence 
and parts of speech. Teacher underlines strong. Visualize 
strong-. Sug-g-est the purpose of making- or finding other ex- 
pressions for the same meaning-. The direct statement of the 
purpose of this recitation v^ill be enough to encourag-e a class 
to select, discuss and define the phrase elements and the clause 
elements. These twelve sentences will furnish the analytic 
drill. For synthetic drill the following- italicised words are 
suitable for expansion : 

1. We respect an ho7iorable pupil. 

2. Washington ^Lrrived. punctually. 

3. An honest effort will be rewarded. 

4. Diligent men are usually happy. 

5. Franklin arose early. 

Note — The presentation in this lesson is essentially a drill. 
This shows that the five formal steps need not be rigidly fol- 
lowed in all lessons. 

248. Drill on adjective clauses. 

^ 1. I that speak unto thee am he. 

2. The evil that men do lives after them. 

3. He is well paid that is well satisfied. 



GRAMMAR 143 

4. Men must reap the things they sow. — Shelly. 

5. Words are the only thing-s that live forever. 

6. Put your trust in those whom you have tested. 

7. He serves all who dares to be true. — Emerson. 

8. Blessed is he who has found his work. — Carlyle. 

9. He that plants trees loves others besides himself. 

10. Choose carefully those with w^hom you will as- 

sociate. 

11. Time, which deadens hatred, secretly 

strengthens love. 

12. Sunday is the golden clasp that binds the volume 

of the week. 

13. That that that that boy used should have been a 

which. 

14. We never tell our secrets to people who pump for 

them. 

15. California is the state whose mines became 

known in 1849. 

16. Self-respect is the noblest garment with which a 

man may clothe himself. 

17. The power which brings a pin to the ground 

holds the earth in its orbit. 

18. He who has resolved to conquer or die is seldom 

conquered. — Corneille. 

19. Memory is the only paradise out of which we 

cannot be driven away. — Richter. 

20. It is a belief in the Bible which has served me as 

the guide of my moral and literary life. — 
Goethe. 
249. Development : Concord of relative pronoun and antecedent. 
I. Aim. To show that the relative pronoun need not 
agree in case with the antecedent. 
II. Preparation. Define pronoun, relative pronoun; name 
the properties of nouns and pronouns. 
III. Presentation. 

1. You are the pupils who make the school. 



144 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

2. You are the pupils whose records g-ive this school 

its reputation. 

3. You are the pupils whom the teachers trust. 

4. I dislike an eye that never twinkles. — Ivong-- 

fellow. 

5. Life is a bubble which any breath may dis- 

solve. — Greeley. 

6. He is a free man whom truth makes free. — 

Dry den. 

7. No man is born Into the world whose work is not 

born with him. — Lowell. 

8. Construct a sentence which will have a relative 

pronoun in the nominative case. 

This lesson is an opportunity for real self- 
activity. It is application rather than the 
presentation of new matter. There are four 
inquiries for each sentence. 

What is the relative pronoun? 

What case is the relative pronoun ? 

What is the antecedent? 

What case is the antecedent ? 

Thus in the first sentence zu/io is the relative 
pronoun, nominative case; pupils is the ante- 
cedent, nominative case. Here the pronoun and 
antecedent do aijree in case. Take the second 
sentence. The relative pronoun whose is pos- 
sessive case ; the antecedent pupils is nomina- 
tive case. The pronoun and the antecedent do 
not agree in case. Likewise in 3, 6, 7, and 8. 
IV. Drill. For further effective drill have pupils recall, 
find, or construct sentences to prove that the 
relative pronoun need not always agree in case 
with the antecedent. 
250. Development : The noun clause. 

I. Aim. To outline a plan of teaching- the noun clause. 
This plan is a simple way of passing from the 



GRAMMAR 145 

known uses of nouns by substituting- a clause 
for each specific use of the noun. 
II. Preparation. Review uses of nouns as illustrated in 
the sentences. Say that this lesson in g-ram- 
mar will use material taken from a discussion 
in astronomy. Some astronomers say that 
every star is like the sun in brillancy but the 
stars appear like small lights simply because 
they are so far from us. The statement spoken 
of in these sentences is the statement that stars 
are suns. 

1. Subject. The statement is believed. 

2. Object. Some people believe that statement. 

3. Attribute. It is an interesting- statement. 

4. Object of preposition. Have you any doubt 

about the statement ? 

5. Appositive. This belief or statement is fasci- 

nating-. 

III. Presentation. The preparation has g-one directly to 

the points to be emphasized, namely, the prin- 
cipal uses of nouns in. sentences. The pupils 
know the definitions of phrases and clauses. 
Now their efi^orts will be directed toward sub- 
stituting- the clause for each use of the noun in 
the sentences g-iven. 

1. That stars are suns is believed. 

2. Some people believe that stars are suns. 

3. The statement is that stars are suns. 

4. Have you any doubt about whether stars are 

suns ? 

5. The statement that stars are suns is fascinating-. 

IV. Drill. Two kinds of drill are sug-gested here, namely, 

interpretation of sentences given, and expan- 
sion. The constructive experience in making- 
sentences to illustrate all the uses of noun 
clause is also advised. 

11 



146 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

1. Let US see how the earth revolves. 

2. My desire is that you may become useful men 

and w^omen. 

3. The opinion that children are naturally bad is 

not favored by me. 

4. Have g-rammarians any proof of v^^hat they say ? 

5. Nature teaches that there is order in her ways. 

6. That you are ambitious is proved by your rec- 

ord. 

7. The question is whether I oug-ht to do it. 

8. Can you understand that a noun clause is used 

like a noun ? 

9. Franklin learned that self-help is one way to 

success. 
10. Trouble teaches how much there is in manhood. — 
Beecher. 
Further drill by substituting and expansion is 
valuable in teaching- the specific uses of noun 
clauses. Such a process in teaching is both 
natural and logical. It is suggested that 
pupils expand the italicised parts into clauses. 

1. The teacher asked the pupils to study. 

2. We believe in the heroisin of Nathan Hale. 

3. Have you read of A?'7iold's sad death? 

4. The beauty of Mt. Veriion is fascinating. 

5. Grant proved his ability. 

251. Drill on noun clauses. 

1. I saw that you were faithful. 

2. Galileo taught that the earth moves. 

3. We believe that the soul is immortal. 

4. Many men advocate whatever seems popular. 

5. Can he hold the position ? is the question. 

6. Where Warren fell is not precisely known. 

7. That he is rich does not mean that he is happy. 

8. The charge is that you have neglected your duty. 



GRAMMAR 147 

9. Who wrote the ^ook of Job is not positively 
known. 

10. Much will depend upon how you write your 

answers. 

11. It is not work that kills men; it is worry. -Beecher. 

12. The g-ood is always the road to what is true. — 

Hamilton. 

13. I regret that I have l)ut one life to g-ive to my 

country. — Hale. 
14 "Beautiful creature," said the fox, "you sing^ 
like a nightingale." 

15. One would think that the fate of our country 

depends upon who will be our next president. 

16. Have you any explanation of why you say that 

noun clauses are used as nouns? 

17. The world will little note nor long- remember 

what we say here, but it can never forget what 
they did here. — Lincoln at Gettysburg. 

18. If ever it is a question whether you or the flag 

must perish, you will instantly choose that it 
shall not be the flag.— W. T. Sherman. 

19. Have we not learned that not stocks nor bonds 

nor stately houses nor lands nor the product of 
the mill is our country? It is a spiritual 
thought that is in our minds. — Benjamin 
Harrison. 

20. That the daring barques of the Northmen had 

long before found their way from Greenland 
to the coast of North America is likiply, though 
not certain. What is certain is that nothing 
more came of their first visit. — Goldwin Smith. 

252. Connectives: Explanation and drill. — Pupils have al- 
ready had some uses of the conjunction, the relative pronoun 
and possibly the conjunctive adverb. The aim of this lesson 
is to give breadth tq their knowledge of connectives. This 



148 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

aim may be attained by analysis to find illustrative uses and 
then by synthesis to impress those uses. 

I. CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. Words. Boys and g-irls study connectives. 

2. Phrases. Pupils study at home and in school. 

3. Independent clauses. Some pupils study at 

home aTid then they recite well in school. 

4. Noun clause. Teachers know that pupils need 

drill on connectives. 

5. Noun clause. Can you tell whether you under- 

stand this or not. 

6. Adverb clause of time. Careless people speak 

before they think. 

7. Adverb clause of cause. Napoleon was sad l^c- 

cause he was in exile. 

8. Adverb clause of condition. If you understand, 

let us proceed. 

9. Adverb clause of purpose. We study that we 

may prepare for successful living-. 
Correlative conjunctions mutually relate to each 
other. They should be placed before similar 
parts of speech or before corresponding groups 
of words. 

10. Flattery corrupts both the receiver ajid the 

giver. — Burke. 

11. There is nothing either good or bad, but think- 

ing makes it so. — Shakespeare. 

12. Try to observe whether to speak or to be silent. 

13. Man is neither the vile nor the excellent being- 

which he sometimes imagines himself to be. — 
Bcjxonsfield. 
Relative pronouns. Used in adjective clauses. 
Who, which, what and that are the common 
forms. See section 248 for illustrations. The 
pronoun is often omitted, as in the following- 
sentences, 



GRAMMAR 149 

1. This is the lesson you will learn. 

2. Cicero is the orator you mentioned. 

3. Connectives is the topic the teacher assigned. 

II. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

The name is derived from the double function of 
conjunction and adverb. First illustrations 
are in adverb clauses. 

1. Time. You learn easily Tiv/zi?;? you are interested. 

2. Place. Cattle will graze where the grass is best. 

3. Manner. The Indians live as their forefathers 

lived. 

4. Comparison. Nev^ York has a better harbor 

than Baltimore has. 

5. Degree. The greater a man is, the less he is 

disposed to show^ his greatness. — Channing. 
(Here the first the is an adverb modifying 
greater; the second the is a conjunctive adverb 
modifying the adverb less and connecting the 
two clauses. The principal clause is The 
greater a man is.) 
Conjunctive adverb in adjective clauses. Why, 
when and where are the common forms, and 
they are frequently associated in this way; 
reason why, time when, place where. 

1. Give a reason why you study grammar. 

2. This is the time when you study grammar. 

3. This is the place where you study grammar. 

4. The child trusts because it finds no reason in it- 

self why it should not.— Holland. 

5. Some schools are places where laziness becomes 

habitual. 

6. The place whereto he came was -an abandoned 

mine. 

7. This great world is the mirror wherein we are 

to behold ourselves. — Montaigne. 



ISO METHODS IN EDUCATION 

8. The play is the thing 
Wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king-. 

— Shakespeare. 

9. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero was buried. 

10. Is patriotism a narrow affection for the spot 
where a man was born ? — Fisher Ames. 

III. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

See illustrative uses in sections 247 and 248. 

253. Distinctive uses of connectives illustrated.— Use in the 

sentence determines the specific classification of connectives. 
Take as for illustration. 

1. Strong men wept as the procession passed. Con- 

junctive adverb of time. 

2. Grammar is as easy as arithmetic is. The first 

as is an adverb of degree modifying the ad- 
jective easy; the second as is a conjunctive 
adverb of degree. 

3. Your place has been filled, as you came too late. 

Conjunction. 

4. There are such pupils as one could desire. Rel- 

ative pronoun. 

254. Synthetic drill on connectives. — Construct sentences to 
illustrate the following : 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. Coordinate: and, but, or. 

2. Expressing cause: as, since, because. 

3. Condition: if, unless, except. 

4. Concession : though, although. 

5. Purpose: that, in order that. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

1. Time: when, before, after. 

2. Place: where, whence, whereto. 

3. Degree: as-as, the-the. 



GRAMMAR 151 

4. Comparison: than, as. 

5. Why, where, when, introducing- adjective clauses. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. Who, whose, whom, which, that. 

255. Fill blanks, tell kind of connective, and classify dependent 
clauses : 

1. you have nothing- to say, say nothing-. 

2. I admire his courage, I consider him cruel. 

3. Do not g-o the sun has set. 

4. Holmes wrote he amused others. 

5. I am proud I am an American. 

6. any one attempts to haul down the flag-, 

shoot him on the spot. — John A. Dix. 

7. We join ourselves to no party does not 

carry the flag- and keep step to the music of the 
Union. — Rufus Choate. 

8. There is no lang-uag-e or speech their voices 

are not heard. 

9. He will neither come in go out. 

10. I see no reason you should not succeed. 

11. You cannot succeed you work. 

12. The moon rose the sun had set. 

13. he fails to repay me, I will trust him. 

14. These are the pupils future will deter- 

mine civic questions. 

256. Exercises in false syntax. — These sentences cover some 
of the common faults in writing and speaking: 

1. It is me. 

2. I done that. 

3. I seen him. 

4. This here one. 

5. Do like I do. 

6. Let you and I study together. 

7. You are better than me in arithmetic. 



152 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

8. I have gfot back. 

9. Not as I know of. 

10. I have saw him. 

11. "Who do you see ? 

12. He had laid down. 

13. What are the news ? 

14. Set down and rest. 

15. I had ought to g-o. 

16. He was to Henry's. 

17. Don't never do that. 

18. Can you learn me ? 

19. They returned back. 

20. It was her who called. 

21. He must stay to home. 

22. Did you see them men ? 

23. I do not like these kind of sentences. 

24. This is the best of the two. 

25. I had rather write. 

26. I only want five dollars. 

27. You hadn't ought to go. 

28. Continue on in this way. 

29. Who does this belong to ? 

30. He had near ten dollars. 

31. We had an awful nice time. 

32. I expected to have seen him. 

33. Either of them are rich. 

34. I have a couple of dollars. 

35. He died with consumption. 

36. I guess I can do this work. 

37. The two first men are strongest. 

38. They will go from hence next week. 

39. He has four brother-in-laws. 

40. It is funny how long she stays sick. 

41. Henry and John is coming. 

42. He dropped down into the water. 

43. They differ between one another. 



GRAMMAR 153 

44. See that 'ere bird. 

45. There's lots of them in school. 

46. I do not know nothing about it. 

47. I went to New York, you know, and when I 

came back, you see, I entered school. 

48. You are not as careful as you should be. 

49. A lady wants to sell her piano as she is going- 

abroad in a strong iron frame. 

50. Wanted a room by a man ten feet by fifteen feet. 



Chapter XII. Geography. 

257. The old and the new. — In" the widespread criticism of 
old ways of teaching-, g-eog-raphy has received its full share of 
censure. Slavish following of the text-book, memorizing long 
lists of names, and the study of unrelated facts are among- the 
faults mentioned. The new presentation of g-eography makes 
man the center of interest by relating all the facts to the wel- 
fare of mankind. This is what is meant by saying that 
"g-eog-raphy should be invested with human interest;" and 
that "the aim in teaching- g-eog-raphy should be to g-ive the 
pupil knowledge of the earth as it ministers to human life." 

258. Illustration. — The old way of studying the rivers of the 
United States required a description of each river under the 
form "rises, flows and empties." Today those three items are 
subordinate facts in the larg-er effort of finding- what each 
river does to aid ag-riculture, manufactures, commerce and the 
pleasures of life. Aside from the use of drainage, the student 
studies the correlated facts of science, literature, history and 
geography until every important g-eog-raphical fact becomes a 
related cause in the past, the present and the future progress 
of humanity. 

"Once there was no g-eog-raphy of the Rocky Mountains, for 
example, except a study of their location and elevation and 
their representation on colored maps. Today the student 
studies its Yellowstone, its Salt Lake, its palisades, parks, 
and canons, but he soon runs ag-round in the leg-itimate 
fields of g-eography, and finds himself encroaching- upon the 
territory of geology or botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, or 
mineralogy. Even in an elementary discussion of the in- 
fluences of these mountains upon the climate of the continent, 
many facts must go unexplained without the principles of nat- 
ural philosophy. That geography of the Rocky Mountains is 



GEOGRAPHY 155 

incomplete which does not include a typical and detailed study 
of its industries, of its mining-, smelting, lumbering-, herding-, 
and its method of agriculture and irrig-ation. A study of the 
various peoples of the mountains may take the direction of 
sociolog-y, economics, ethnolog-y, and g-overnment. The g-eo- 
g-raphy of the Rocky Mountains thus approached, and only 
thus, may g"ive a true insig-ht into, and an ability to interpret, 
that part of the world. " — Heeter, Commercial and Industrial 
Geog-raphy, N. E. A. Report, 1907, p. 509. 

259. Broader educational use. — This modern conception of 
the industrial value of g-eog-raphical knowledg-e is proof enoug-h 
that the study of g-eog^raphy is more than a mere memory 
process. The following- discussions will show the necessity 
of employing- observation, memory, imag-ination, reason and 
judg-ment in every complete study of a topic. 

260. New York City course of study. — The g^eneral course of 
study for New York City was adopted by the Board of Educa- 
tion May 27, 1903; revised June 21, 1905 and June 11, 1907; and 
the syllabus in g-eog-raphy was adopted by the Board of Su- 
perintendents in October, 1905, and revised in July, 1907. 
This last revision embodies the consensus of opinion of the 
best thinkers on this subject, and so some parts of the sug-- 
g-estions on g-eog-raphy are taken verbatim, as i.n sections 261 
to 264 inclusive. 

261. Introductory note. — Geog-raphy has been defined as 
"the study of the earth as the home of man." How this phys- 
ical environment aids or hinders the development of man, and 
what man has done to modifj', adapt, and utilize his physical 
environment, constitute the subject-matter of geography. 
The human feature — man's achievements in industry, com- 
merce, and political organization— should predominate in the 
study. As Dr. Harris has stated the proposition, the pupil 
"must beg-in with the natural differences of climate and lands 
and waters and obstacles that separate peoples, and study 
the methods by which man strives to equalize or overcome these 



156 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

differences by industry and commerce, to unite all places and 
all people, and make it possible for each to share in the pro- 
duction of all." 

The objects of teaching g-eography may be classified as 
practical, intellectual, and ethical. 

262. Practical purposes. 

1. There are many geographical facts, suchj for 

example, as the location and characteristics 
of important cities, mountain systems, and 
large rivers, which it is a disgrace and a mis- 
fortune not to know. Every public school child 
must be made to know such matters so thor- 
oughly that he will never forget them. 

2. Maps and plans are now constantly used in news- 

papers and in business. The child must, 
therefore, be made to understand their conven- 
tional symbols and to become expert in re- 
ferring to them and interpreting them. 

3. The child, as a member of a great manufacturing 

and commercial community, should be familiar 
with the resources and productions, raw and 
manufactured, of his own country, and of all 
, countries with which we have dealings; he 
should know the chief markets, home and 
foreign, for our goods; he should learn the 
quickest, safest and cheapest trade routes; he 
should be able to form conceptions of the kind 
of goods which home and foreign customers 
require from New York. While it cannot be 
expected that a child's judgment on such mat- 
ters will be highly trained, he should know 
how and where to find such information when 
he needs it. 

4. Our current literature, magazines and news- 

papers, assume an intimate knowledge of 



GEOGRAPHY 157 

geography on the part of the reader. School 
training in the subject should, therefore, result 
in the ability to determine quickly, by the use 
of an atlas, gazetteer or other work of refer- 
ence, the location and characteristics of places, 
the names of which are met with in reading or 
required in business. Special training along 
this line is required during the last three years 
of the course, under the heading, "Location 
of places associated with important current 
events." 

263. Intellectual purposes. 

1. Geography may be made to train the observing 

powers. As far as possible everything taught 
should be illustrated from what the child may 
see in this city. This statement holds good 
not merely of the introductory lessons in home 
geography, but of the lessons throughout the 
course.- Representatives of the chief races 
of men, every conceivable product of man's 
skill and industry, every modern means of 
transportation and communication, may be 
observed in this city, while our parks and 
museums are full of objects of historic and 
contemporary interest. It is suggested that 
each pupil be furnished with a small blank 
book in which to record out of school the re- 
sults of his observation. 

2. It may be made to train the iinagination. At 

every step the pupil is called upon to build up 
conceptions of objects unseen and places un- 
visited through images derived from things 
seen, from pictures and from verbal descrip- 
tions. 



158 mp:thods in education 

3. Rijrhtly taught, geography trains the memory. 

The great vice, however, of geography instruc- 
tion is the learning by rote of lists of names, 
(rivers, cities, etc.), or the descriptive matter 
in the text-book. To avoid this barren and 
wasteful process, the facts of geography should 
be linked by natural associations. "What 
association so strong," asks Professor Laurie, 
"as the association of all our knowledge of a 
subject with the familiar objects of our daily 
lives, out of which we have made the teaching 
of geography spring ? What association so 
strong as the organic connection which this 
mode of teaching establishes in the mind?" 
Names of places, whenever possible, should be 
associated with important historical events 
and with literary allusions. 

4. Geography should also be made, particularly 

during the last three years of the course, to 
train the 7'easoning powers. When you ask a 
child to classify the natural features of a 
country, rivers, for example, according to some 
common property, as navigability, or the pro- 
ducts of a country, as necessaries and luxuries; 
and still more when you ask him to generalize 
after he has classified, as for instance to de- 
termine the status of a people after a classi- 
fication of their products, you are training 
him to reason. 

264, Ethical purposes. — The ethical purposes of the teaching 
of geography are to lead to the moral lesson that all men must 
work and that each man should so work that his labor will 
benefit not only himself, but the whole community, and that 
what is true of individuals is equally true of nations. "There 
is probably," says Professor Laurie, "no one subject so 



GEOGRAPHY 159 

prolific of matter for independent thoug-ht and judg-ment on 
the affairs of life, and the destiny and duty of man. By means 
of it, too, we not merely furnish moral material, so to speak, 
but we extend the sympathies of the pupil, and lay the founda- 
tion of that sentiment of humanity which is the necessary 
counterpoise to narrow and parochial prejudices." 

In order that these matters may be more fully understood, 
the pupils must also be led to consider the earth in relation to 
the sun, its forms, its motions, and such resultant phenomena 
as the seasons, air and ocean currents, and rains. 

265. Col. Parker quoted. — The first steps in geography 
should srive the child the means to imagine that which he can- 
not see. Begin with the forms around you; the close and care- 
ful study of the chains or ranges of hills, valleys, plains, 
coast-lines, springs, brooks, rivers, ponds, lakes, islands and 
peninsulas. Study them as you do objects in Botany or 
Zoology. Take the children out into the fields and valleys; 
return to the schoolroom; let them describe <Drally what they 
have seen; then mould and draw it; and, finally, have them 
describe the objects they have seen by writing. Teach them 
distance by actual measurement; boundaries by fences, and 
other limitations; drainage by gutters, and the flow of water 
after a rain. Let them find springs, and discover how the 
water comes out of the ground. Have them bring in difi'erent 
kinds of earth — gravel, sand, clay, and loam. I have not time 
to give you any regular order of subjects — if there be one. Be- 
gin with one object, study it carefully, then take another and 
combine the two and so on. I wish to call yourattention espe- 
cially to the three great means of thought expression: first, the 
concrete expression; second, drawing; third, language. The 
first may be done by mouldings and obtained from an iron- 
foundry. Have pupils tell you what they have seen by mould- 
ing the form. Second, have them draw everything they see in 
relief and horizontally. Third, describe what they have seen 
orally, and then in writing. Use these means continually in 
teaching geography. — Talks on Pedagogics, p. 125. 



160 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

266. Home geography.— No matter where the school may be 
located, the first lessons in geography should be an observa- 
tion of the facts at hand. Schoolroom, schoolyard, district, 
town, county, etc., make a series in going from the known to 
the related unknown. But what facts should a child know as 
a basis for geography ? 

267. Fundamental facts. — A knowledge of geography implies 
a knowledge of location, direction, form, size, and distance. 
A further analysis might require space, time, proportion and 
other elements, biit our purpose is to ascertain useful essentials 
rather than to try to make a complete category. 

268. Early lessons. — Nature study and object lessons are a 
preliminary preparation for geography. In this way pupils 
acquire the elementary knowledge of soil, climate, productions; 
animal, vegetable and mineral life; and the general needs of 
mankind. This concrete approach to technical geography in- 
vites the use of approved methods and devices, and so it is 
probable that the plan is made familiar as a means of getting 
a concept of forms. The word plan in this use means a repre- 
sentation of anything drawn on a plane. Thus the point of 
the pencil is represented by a dot; the pointer, by a straight 
line; the pane of glass, by a rectangle; the face of a cube, by 
a square; the sphere, by a circle. The top of the child's desk 
furnishes an easy plan. Drawn full size, the plan requires 
actual measurement; a smaller size calls for the use of propor- 
tion and scale. Other plans may include the room, one floor 
of the building, the yard, and a part of the district or the city. 
Right here in this early work, distinguish picture and plan 
or map. Show picture and plan side by side. 

269. Points of compass. — The exercises 266 and 268 may be 
used in teaching the points of the compass. North, east, 
south and west can be fixed in mind by positions of objects on 
each desk. Enlarge the application by indicating directions 
in room, yard or district. Use sunrise and , sunset as aids. 
Locate north star, face it, and then apply the old way of 



GEOGRAPHY 161 

stretching- arms, right toward the east and left toward the 
west. Mention use of shadows and blowing- of smoke as means 
of determining directions. Study wall map and apply knowl- 
edge. Locate a place and have children point to neighboring- 
parts and tell directions. For more practical application, have 
pupils walk toward certain desig-nated places. This exercise 
g-ives a personal relation to the facts. Its use makes pupils 
realize that north is not always up nor is south always down. 

270. Distance. — Actual measurement of familiar things must 
always be one way of acquiring the concept of distance. Time 
required in traveling is another equivalent of distance, espe- 
cially with city children. The average child will speak of 
the length of Brooklyn Bridge as twenty minutes rather than 
a mile. Distance as an element of size in geography is likely 
to remain an imperfect estimate. 

271. Maps. — The study of the schoolroom gives a larger 
conception of shape, size, location, cardinal directions, scale 
and proportion. The intermediate points northeast, southwest, 
etc., should be taught. The placing of pupils in the principal 
points in the room is a concrete way of sustaining interest. It 
gives reality to the exercise; and right here the pupils can be- 
gin to use their constructive imaginations by making little 
journeys in the room. Name directions to and from which 
they travel. The map of the room requires another applica- 
tion of measurement according to a scale. Desk, library, and 
other large objects should be located on map but the location 
of seats should be deferred. Too many items lead to confu- 
sion. This selection of important objects is the first act in 
the formation of the 'habit of observing the essentials in later 
map study. 

The next step is simply a larger application of the ideas 
already gained. In cities, it may be a map of one floor of the 
school building; in rural schools, the yard is better because it 
puts pupils into contact with the realities of geography. The 
pupils' homes are still objective points of interest, but hills 

12 



162 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

and valleys, woods and growing crops are also inviting- forms 
of educative material related to the welfare of man. All these 
are interesting aids in fixing locations, applying directions, 
and training the pupils to image a map of all the points 
observed. 

272. Models. — The exercises already suggested are means 
of training the observation. At the same time the memory is 
developed. When it is not possible to observe the actual forms 
of land and water, models and pictures are supplemental aids. 
Models may be made of clay, sand, putty or paper. Clay and 
putty are serviceable for permanent illustrations. Moist sand 
is desirable because it can be used many times. Paper pulp 
is light and inexpensive, and it is easily colored to represent 
different elevations. The pulp is prepared by tearing paper 
into small pieces, soaking it, kneading it, and then draining 
off the water. It is easily worked into shape to represent land 
forms. Use glue or mucilage to fasten it to heavy paper or 
board. 

To illustrate rivers, lakes or other forms of water, build the 
model upon blue or green paper or upon a pane of glass. Then 
mould the land forms but leave paper or glass exposed to il- 
lustrate water. 

273. Constructive imagination. — The use of observation as a 
process in elementary work in geography has already been 
shown. Likewise for the first uses of the memory in retaining 
geographical information. As soon as pupils are required to 
think of forms or conditions which they have not observed, the 
constructive imagination is brought into use. A familiar pond 
may be enlarged by the constructive imagination to make a 
lake; the neighboring hill can be increased in size till it be- 
comes a mountain; the valley stretches to limits beyond the 
power of human vision, and it becomes a plain. All the facts 
observed in home i:!:eography are applied to locations in other 
parts of the earth; the streets, the houses, and the public 
buildings in the n ative village have to be transplanted and 



GEOGRAPHY 163 

modified to make the imag^e of a foreign city. Thus it is that 
in nearly every mental act in the broader study of g-eog-raphy 
the constructive imagination presents to the mind the images 
of things which can be thought of although they are not actually 
observed. This power of the mind is also employed in con- 
structing models, making maps, in getting the thought from 
oral or written descriptions, and in making commercial trips 
to the principal ports of the world. 

274. Analytic and synthetic methods. — The analytic method 
of teaching geography begins with the globe as a whole. It 
divides the surface of the earth into land and water and then 
subdivides the surface into islands, peninsulas, continents, 
rivers, lakes, oceans, etc. The advantages claimed for the 
analytic method are the following: 

1. Whole to parts. 

2. Early familiarity with the globe. 

3. Better view of relative position, size, form, divi- 

sions of land and water. 

4. The globe enables the teacher to explain causes 

of day and night, change of seasons, etc. 

275. Synthetic method. — The synthetic method of teaching 
geography begins with the geography of the home and the 
schoolroom and then proceeds to the school yard, the neighbor- 
hood and the larger political divisions. It begins with the 
island, peninsula, valley, hill, river or lake, which the child 
can see, and then proceeds by use of the imagination to the 
other forms which the child cannot see. The advantages 
claimed for the synthetic method are the following: 

1. Interest in familiar objects. 

2. Known to related unknown. 

3. From the near to the remote. 

4. Concrete to abstract. 

5. An inductive method. 

6. It gives the pupil a fundamental geographical 

knowledge and enables him to pursue the study 
alone. In other words, it is a direct way to 
self-activity. 



164 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Both analytic and synthetic methods are used. The latter 
is used in beg^inning g-eography in 4 A, the pupils making- a 
map of the schoolroom and one floor of the school building- as 
an introduction to the study of the map of the City of New 
York. Home geog-raphy covers location, nationalities and 
local history in such a way that the pupils become familiar 
with the industrial, social and civic relations. The analytic 
treatment of the earth and its subdivisions is also given in 4 A, 
using the globe. Thus the advantages claimed for both 
methods are utilized. 

276. Excursions. — Excursions to fields, parks, and museums, 
to docks and water fronts, to centers of local industry, manu- 
facturing establishments and sources of supply, and to histori- 
cal buildings, monuments and tablets are recommended. 
Constant appeal should be made to the individual observation 
and judgment of pupils. — Introductory Note in Geography, 
New York City Course of Study. 

The mode of learning facts by means of excursions is a con- 
crete approach to vivid ideas. A preliminary discussion in 
the classroom prepares the mind for immediate and active 
receptivity in the fields. The facts of local environment are 
learned so that pupils may begin early to adjust themselves 
to their environment. 

A second value of such facts is the acquisition of types of 
knowledge. These types are employed by comparison and 
contrast in studying similar facts or conditions in other parts 
of the world. Remember that the excursion itself is not the 
type of knowledge; the type is what is learned. Thus the 
study of a gas plant is a type for the study of other gas plants; 
one bicycle factory furnishes data for a type of knowledge in 
that line. 

A third value of information acquired on excursions is 
economy in the act of learning. The lesson is concrete; the 
conditions are interesting; the class is under social stimulus ; 
exercise, circulation and respiration favor good physical sup- 
port for mental activity. 



GEOGRAPHY 165 

Fourth, the facts acquired do nut admit adequate presenta- 
tion within the scope of elementary text-books. Take, for in- 
stance, a canal. The topic is the construction and operation 
of a lock. A quarter of an hour in observing- the passage of a 
boat from a lower level to a higher level will give an intensity 
of impression that is not within the possibility of schoolroom 
teaching. 

Fifth, correlation of industries. Actual contact with the 
various unified forms of industry will tend to put the children 
into sympathy with the conditions requiring co-operative 
adaptation in later life. 

277. McMurry on excursions. — ^A detailed treatment of excur- 
sions and types in teaching third and fourth grade geography 
is given in Special Method in Geography by Charles A. 
McMurry. (The MacMillan Company). 

278. Order of treatment.— The Report of the Committee of 
Ten, page 211, suggests an order of treatment based on mental 
processes. Quoted in sections 278 to 282 inclusive. "Reduced 
to a sentence the scheme is: first, see; next, reproduce; then 
study the productions of others, and, meanwhile, ponder and 
reason on all. 

279. Representative geography. — Immediately after the mak- 
ing of observations should come their reproduction in the form 
of descriptions, sketches, maps, models, etc. The instruction 
of the teacher falls far short of its highest efficiency if the early 
work is merely observational and receptive. The great end 
of education is to create productive ability. One important 
form of this is representative production. Besides having- 
value in itself, the description of features that have been seen 
and their representation by sketches, maps, or models reacts 
upon the observational work and induces a clearness, sharp- 
ness, and definiteness that it would not otherwise be likely to 
take. Not only this, but it leads the scholars to realize what 
maps, descriptions, etc., really mean. 



166 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

280. Derivative or descriptive geography. — When pupils have 
gained true and vivid basal ideas by observation and have, by 
reproducing- these, acquired a realistic sense of the meaning- 
of maps and an ability to read them, in the full and proper 
sense of the term, they are prepared to pass on to a formal 
study of descriptive geog-raphy. In this, the observational and 
representative work of others than themselves is made the basis 
of study. The pupils are not now^ studying the earth's sur- 
face but 'a description of the earth's surface.' 

281. Rational geography.— It has already been urged that 
the pupils should be induced to observe changes and processes 
as w^ell as the simple passive facts of geography, and that 
there should thereby be laid the foundation for an understand- 
ing of the origin, the development, and the future history of 
geographic features. This is the introduction of rational 
geography, as distinguished from the mere noting and memor- 
izing of facts. This phase of the subject which leads the 
pupils into the reason of things, should be assiduously culti- 
vated, for it is the soul of the science. It should, however, be 
carefully adapted to the capabilities of the pupils, particularly 
in the earlier stages of the study. They should not be forced 
beyond their capacity to comprehend the nature of the agencies 
that have rendered geography what it is. On the other hand, 
there is an equal danger of underestimating the capacities of 
pupils to see into the reasons for natural operations. 

It is not recommended that rational geography be disasso- 
ciated from observational and descriptive geography, but 
rather, on the contrary, that it be intimately connected with 
these and that it be introduced so as to give them life and 
significance. 

282. Observational geography.— In the judgment of the Confer- 
ence, observation should go before all other forms of geographi- 
cal study and prepare the way for them; its object being (1) to 
develop the power and habit of geographic observation, (2)to give 
the pupils true and vivid basal ideas, and (3) to arouse a spirit 



GEOGRAPHY 167 

of inquiry and a thirst for g-eographical knowledg-e. This 
work of observation should beg^in with those features that lie 
immediately about the pupils and so fall easily within the 
reach of their direct study and ready comprehension. In rural 
districts, the natural features of the surface will obviously 
form a larg^e part of the study, while in cities, the artificial 
features must largely take the place of these. In the one in- 
stance, natural g-eog-raphy, as seen in the forms of the land, 
the hills, valleys, plains, meadows, divides, streams, lakes, 
etc., will predominate, while in the other artificial or human- 
istic geog-raphy will receive leading- attention, as streets, rail- 
ways, wharves, harbors, parks, plots, wards, etc. ; but some- 
thing- of both these g-roups of subjects may be found and utilized 
in both localities. Neither should be neglected, for the pupils 
need not only to acquire clear ideas of the things by which 
they are chiefly surrounded but type ideas of the things which 
characterize other localities and of which they need to form 
correct ideas without being able to see them. Observation, 
however, should not be confined simply to the passi e fixed 
features by which pupils are surrounded. They should ob- 
serve the agencies that produce surface changes, such as 
winds, rains, floods, thawing, freezing, cultivation, etc. The 
temporary streams that follow heavy rains represent on a 
small scale many of the natural processes by which surface 
featurea are produced. From these immediate agencies, the 
observations should extend to the phenomena of the weather 
and the climate, such as temperature, winds, clouds, seasons, 
etc. ********* As a step toward the 
study of the distribution of plants and animals and an insight 
into their dependence upon temperature, soil, food, etc., the 
pupils should be encouraged to observe the differences of 
plants on uplands, lowlands, marshes, etc., and upon sandy, 
clayey, gravelly or stony ground, and to note the habitual dis- 
persal of animals and insects in the neighborhood, and also 
their relations to each other, as in forming or frequenting 
forests, prairies, meadows, etc. As a step toward the study 



168 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

of the human elements in geography, observations should be 
made upon the population and its distribution, upon home oc- 
cupations and productions, upon local political boundaries, 
as wards, school districts, city or town limits, etc., and upon 
the location of cities, villages, railways, canals, etc." 

283. Concentric circles.— The arrangement of subject-matter 
in any course of study may be made so that the elementary 
facts of a subject are treated as fast as pupils are able to 
master those facts. Then in a later grade the more difficult 
facts are presented after a review of the elementary facts al- 
ready mastered. This process of enlarging the scope of 
knowledge as pupils pass from grade to grade has been termed 
the arrangement in concentric circles. Many of the new text- 
books in the various subjects are made according to this plan. 
The old method attempted to master all essential knowledge 
of any part of a subject before passing to another chapter 
which dealt with another phase of the same subject. It is 
claimed that the plan of concentric circles is in harmony with 
the interest and the ability of pupils. 

This arrangement in concentric circles, or cycles, is known 
as the spiral method in geography. This plan of arrange- 
ment is used in nearly all the modern courses of study al- 
though there are some adverse criticisms of it. In teaching 
the circle of simpler facts, some teachers fail to give enough 
information, while others pass beyond the elementary circle 
into the fields of information which are supposed to be re- 
served for another grade. These two conditions are likely to 
make children show a lack of interest as soon as another 
teacher begins to review or enlarge the circle of information 
already covered. 

284. Illustration of concentric arrangement. — The following 
outline for five grades illustrates the cycles in geography. 

4A. Home geography, local history, the earth. Form 
and surface; the continents; the oceans; great 
islands and groups of islands; great seas, 
gulfs and bays. 



GEOGRAPHY 169 

4B. The earth : motions, zones. Eastern and western 

hemispheres, world stories, duties of citizens 

and public officials. 
5 A. The earth: seasons, latitude, longitude. 
SB. United States: representative states in each 

g-roup. New York and the City of New York. 
6B. South America, Canada, Mexico, Central 

America and West Indies. Location of places 

associated with current events. 
7B. Asia, Africa, Australia, and Island Groups. 

Places and current events. 
8A. Mathematical and physical geography. Places 

and current events. 
8B. Review of political and commercial geography. 

Places and current events. 

285. Causal relations. — In the study of geography it is pos- 
sible to memorize all the important facts about topography, 
climate and human progress, but that knowledge would not be 
considered satisfactory in content or method. Every part 
should be associated with cause and effect. Topograph}^ 
modifies climate, and both topography and climate affect man. 
Man, in turn, converts many of the physical conditions to his 
own advantage. The tracing out of all these mutual condi- 
tions as causes and effects employs the reasoning powers in 
getting what is known as causal relations. 

286. Causal series.— Recall the criticism of the old ways of 
teaching geography by making it a memory process. The ex- 
planation of causal relations already given is another way of 
showing that the modern teaching of geography appeals to the 
other powers of the mind. The processes required for reason 
and judgment are employed in all phases of the work from 4A 
through 8B. The arrangement of topics in such a way that 
the causal relations appear as a series gives rise to the term 
causal series. The following topics constitute a causal series : 
(1) Location, (2) resources, (3) industries and occupations, (4) 



170 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

products, (5) commerce, (6) chief cities, (7) social development. 
See latest outline suggested in Plan of Study for 1907, section 
292. 

287. Man and nature. — Thus the interpretation of causal 
relations in geography involves the reciprocal relations of man 
and nature. We quote from an article on Commercial and In- 
dustrial Geography by Superintendent Heeter of St. Paul, N. 
E. A. Report, 1907, page 508. 

"While climate and topography have operated singly and 
together in the distribution of life and both have played an 
important part, not only in the making of history, but in deter- 
mining the customs and achievements of every people, yet man 
has not been a slave to geographical conditions. He has gone 
forth to modify, to rise above environment, to multiply, and to 
subdue the earth, and there is a human, as well as a natural, 
interest in all this new study. 

'Tis true, man has populated the earth, the Northland and 
the Southland, from Scandinavia to Siberia, from Abyssinia 
to the islands of the sea, but wherever he has gone, he has 
clad himself to meet the conditions of climate; he has built to 
withstand the tests of season; he has labored for wholesome 
food; and has forced the earth to yield up more than her native 
stores. The very form and character of his effort, as revealed 
by the apparatus in organization of industry, show not only 
the process of adjustment to native environment, but a deter- 
mination and a success in rising above all natural limitations. 
Thus the Esquimaux labors and invents, but not the same as 
the nomad of the desert, the planter of the flood-plain, the 
ranchman of the foot-hills, or the lumberman of the camps. 
The great double question, then, confronting the student of 
geography today is, first, what physical and climatic condi- 
tions have directly influenced the different peoples of the earth, 
their modes of life, and their activities? Second, what have 
these people in turn done reacting against their geographical 
environment ? 



GEOGRAPHY 171 

Under the stimulus of man's inventive g-enius, along- with 
the evolution of modern science and inventions, intercommuni- 
cation has been made perfect, barriers have been broken down, 
reg-ions once isolated have been connected, continents have been 
linked, the whole earth has become one vast neig-hborhood, 
and every man a neighbor. Here we see the interdependence 
of men, the East upon the West, the West upon the East, the 
North upon the South, and Europe upon America. Adverse 
conditions in one section affect all other sections. Civilized 
man everywhere is dependent upon all reg-ions of the earth to 
contribute to his food, shelter, clothing-, and culture; and a 
large part of civilized effort has been directed toward perfect- 
ing modes of travel, commerce, and intercommunication, until 
today streams of trade have opened into world-wide currents. " 

288. Types in geography. — A type in any study is a form of 
knowledge fixed in the mind. Such a form of knowledge be- 
comes an apperceiving group for all other related knowledge. 
Thus in the study of geography it is possible to have the child 
master a characteristic mining section, or an agricultural 
section, or a manufacturing section. Then when he comes to 
study other portions of the globe situated within the same 
general boundaries, his first inference will be that the condi- 
tions in those respective mining, agricultural, and manufac- 
turing sections are similar to the ones already studied. The 
analogy must be tested by finding a few conditions that mark 
a difference between the two sections. The advantages claimed 
for types as given by McMurry are the following: 

1. Types are keys to larger areas of geographical 

knowledge. 

2. Realities are studied. 

3. Thoroughly interesting and instructive. 

4. The study of causes and causal relations. 

5. Basis of a series of comparisons. • 

6. From home outwards. * 

7. Direct path to whole groups and sequences. 



^J 



172 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

289. Illustration of a type. — In 4A the pupils make a thor- 
oug-h study of New York City. Note how this kind of treat- 
ment could be applied to Boston, Chicag-o, San Francisco, or 
any other city. 

Home geography. — ^A plan of the schoolroom as an intro- 
duction of the study of maps; sketch-plan of the school block, 
showing the position of the school building- and the location of 
the classroom; the directions, north, south, east, and west 
indicated; plans drawn without reference to scale. Topog-- 
raphy of The City of New York and vicinity; location of city 
with reference to the states of New York and New Jersey; 
division of city into boroug-hs and names of boroughs; direc- 
tion of each borough from home boroug-h; boundaries of the 
home borough and of Manhattan; land and water forms of the 
neighborhood; the harbor and waterfronts. Location of main 
avenues and streets of home borough; names and locations of 
local bridges, tunnels, parks and other important points of in- 
terest, with their attractions and the means of reaching them. 

Population. — Brief reference to nationalities composing it; 
occupations of the people illustrated by reference to neighbor- 
ing farms, factories, shops, and to street and river traffic; 
transportation of people from the home borough to the business 
sections. 

Local history. — Stories connected with the history of New 
York told or read by the teacher or by the class; stories illus- 
trated by reference to places and monuments of historic inter- 
est; biographical stories illustrating some of the great historic 
periods, as the settlement of Manhattan and neighboring ter- 
ritory; Dutch occupation; the coming of the English; struggles 
with the French and with the Indians; New York during the 
Revolution. Development of the city as a manufacturing and 
commercial center, e.g., Fulton's steamboat; the opening of 
the Erie Canal; the introduction of the telegraph; the laying 
of th5 Atlantic cable; the Brooklyn Bridge; consolidation; the 
Greater New York; the opening of the subway. 



GEOGRAPHY 173 

Stories of distinguished citizens of The City of New York, 
such as Peter Stuyvesant, DeWitt Clinton, and Peter Cooper. 

Good, CITIZENSHIP. — Fire department. Fire alarms; engine 
houses; duties of firemen; instances of heroism. 

Duty of Citizens. Care in the use of matches, kerosene, gas, 
benzine and other explosives or combustibles ; care in regard 
to fireworks, bonfires, and rubbish; duty of keeping fire- 
escapes clear of encumbrances; fire-drills; means of egress 
from buildings; behavior at panics. 

Police Department. Enforcement of law; maintenance of 
order; control of crowds; protection of life and property; de- 
tection and prevention of crime; arrest of criminals; traffic 
regulation; instances of heroism. 

Duty of Citizens. Respect for police authority; appeal in 
case of danger; rendering assistance in maintaining order; 
conduct in the streets; ball-playing and stone-throwing — why 
forbidden; protection of city property. — From Syllabus, Re- 
vised Course of Study, 1905. 

290. Comparison. — The study of geography by means of 
causal series, topics, etc., requires the constant use of com- 
parison and contrast. But even aside from these specific 
methods involving the causes, many modern geographies pre- 
sent comparative tables for visualization. Some use dark 
lines of varying lengths to indicate the quantity of products. 
Others approach nearer the objective reality by presenting 
bags of different sizes to indicate the quantity of grains pro- 
duced; barrels are used for wines, liquors, and other liquids. 
These tables, whatever they may be, are simply another way 
of impressing geographical facts through multiple sense in- 
struction. The memory alone is not required to carry the 
the lessons of comparison. 

A comparison of North America and South America is taken 
from DeGraff's School Room Guide, p. 286. 



174 



METHODS IN EDUCATION 



1 . North America is an irregular 

triangle. 

2. On its west coast, there is a laigh 

range of volcanic mountains. 

3. Parallel with the east coast, runs 

a lower range. 

4. The middle of the continent is 

occupied by a vast plain from 
the Arctic Ocf^an to the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

5. The St. Lawrence flows from west 

to east; the Mississippi from 
north to south. 



1. South America is a regular tri- 

angle. 

2. On its west coast, there is a high 

range which contains many 
volcanoes. 

3. Parallel with the east coast, runs 

a secondary range. 

■1. The middle of the continent is 
occupied by a vast plain from 
the Carribbean Sea to the La 
Plata. 

5. The Amazon flow^s from west to 
east; the LaPlata from north 
to south. 



291. Plan of study. — Recommended by the Board of Super- 
intendents, 1907. Quoted in 291 to 297. 

In studying- the continents as wholes, attention should be 
directed to their comparative sizes, (North America being 
taken as the unit), relative positions, their general contour, 
their great mountain systems, their great rivers, their large 
seas, gulfs, and bays, and their important neighboring islands. 
Then should follov^ the main political divisions and the 
positions of important cities. 

292. Plan for studying a country. — In studying a country the 
follov^ing series of topics, as far as they may be applicable to 
the country under consideration and in the grade in which the 
lesson may be given, is suggested : 

1. Location as determined by latitude and longitude 

and with relation to surrounding countries 
and waters. 

Pupils should never be told the latitude and 
the longitude nor required to memorize them, 
but should be trained to determine them by 
the inspection of a map. 

2. Comparative size and shape. 

The area of the State of New York (about 50,000 
square miles ) may be taken as the unit with 



GEOGRAPHY 175 

which the areas of all countries shall be com- 
pared. The comparative size should never be 
told, but should be made a matter of calcula- 
tion on the part of the pupil. 

3. Mountain systems and important ranges; slopes 

and plains. 

4. River systems and important rivers. 

5. Important cities, their location, and their com- 

parative population. 
The population of the City of New York, four 
millions in round numbers, may be taken as 
the unit of comparison. When learning- about 
a city, the reason for which it is celebrated 
should be brought out. 

6. Climate, industries, products, and areas of pro- 

duction. 

7. Form of government and general condition of the 

people as to education and ways of living. 
Under the head of "Ways of Living" should be 
included housing, food, clothing, occupations, 
and use of animals. 

8. Exports and imports, trade, particularly with 

the United States. 

293. The recitation. — Most of the work in geography should 
be done in the classroom. Very little, if any, study at home 
is necessary. The lesson should generally begin with a study 
of a globe or a map. This should be followed or accompanied by 
the reading pertinent selections from the text-book or supple- 
mentary reader. The selections should be read aloud in 
class, and pupils should be expected to answer questions 
after a single reading. Then some time should be spent in 
copying the map roughly from the book or from the wall, indi- 
cating such phases of the subject as have been studied. The 
next lesson should consist largely in questioning the pupils 
with the map before them and in requiring them to make 



176 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

rapid sketches of maps from memory. This exercise is the 
best method of fixing g-eog-raphical knowledge and of showing 
the pupil how accurate or inaccurate his knowledge is. It is, 
moreover, the easiest way to teach much of this subject, as 
well as the easiest way to test the definiteness with which the 
subject has been learned. Care should be taken to see that 
these maps are only sketches and that time is not wasted on 
the ilnnecessary elaboration of details. Neither tracing nor 
construction lines should be used. Sand or clay modeling 
may be used in the early grades to give a conception of the 
surface of a continent or a country. 

294. Use of pictures.— A valuable aid to instruction in geo- 
graphy is a picture. The only true conceptions of certain 
elements of geographical knowledge are obtained by travel 
and observation. But travel and observation for children are 
restricted within very narrow limits, and the best substitute 
is the picture. One picture is often worth volumes of verbal 
description, and at the present time there is scarcely any place 
or any feature of life or human activity of which a picture is 
not easily obtainable. Pictures are useful, however, only 
when children are trained not only to see and name the objects 
they contain, but to draw conclusions from them regarding 
the character of vegetation, the habitat and habits of animals, 
the ways of living and occupations of men, and other topics 
involved in the teaching of geography. 

295. Outlines by pupils. — In the higher grades, pupils should 
be exercised in making synoptic outlines of topics treated in 
the text-book. 

296. Aids. — Globe; outline, commercial, United States 
geographical survey, topographic and census maps; weather 
charts, pictures, photographs, lantern slides and other illus- 
trative material; collections of minerals, rocks, soils, seeds, 
raw and manufactured material; text-books, books of refer- 
ence on geography, history, biography, travel, natural history; 



GEOGRAPHY 177 

mag-azine articles, newspaper clipping-s, almanacs of the New 
York dailies, railroad and steamboat guides, and official 
reports. 

297. Dr. Maxwell on geography.— In September, 1907, Dr. 
Maxwell delivered an address before the principals of New 
York City. Sections 298 to 299 inclusive g"ive the substance of 
his remarks on the revised syllabus in geography. See School 
Work, November, 1907, for an excellent abstract of the whole 
address. 

298. Suggestions to principals. 

1. That you read and discuss with your teachers 

the Introductory Note, which explains the or- 
ganizing principle of the course and make 
suggestions as to method. 

2. That you should take up lessons with your teach- 

ers as they will be expected to take them up with 
their pupils. These things require special 
attention to the following details : 

(a) How to use a globe. See section 301. 

(b) How to use a map. See section 317. 

(c) How to study the text of the geography. See 
section 318. 

(d) How to study a picture. Following plan 
suggested: Select a picture, see the items it 
contains, draw conclusions as to character of 
vegetation, occupations of men, ways of living, 
etc. 

299. Results that are essential. 

1. In learning about a place, a pupil should be able 

instantly to point to it on (a) a map with 
names, ( b ) map without names, (c) place it on a 
map rapidly sketched by children. 

2. Tell why it is distinguished. 

3. To make rapid computations as to relative size; 

continents with North America; countries with 
New York State; cities with New York. 

13 



178 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. To tell the latitude and longitude of a place from 

inspection of a map; and to locate a place, the 
latitude and longitude being given. 

5. To make a synoptic outline of a given portion of 

the text. To meet criticism, I would suggest 
that both teachers and children should be re- 
quired w^hen mentioning any city in the United 
States to mention along with it the State in 
which it is located. 

300. Suggested ideas and devices.— Some of these have already 
been mentioned, but we present them all under this heading 
so that the teacher may view the topics as a whole. 

1. Moulding-board, globe, map*. 

2. Outline maps. The time required for elaborate 

work in making the outlines of various states 
or countries is no longer considered useful in 
the study of geography. Outline maps may 
be secured from publishers and then the filling 
in becomes a valuable act of learning. Only 
the most important points deserve location on 
the maps. The use of such map-making is 
simply one means of impressing through visual- 
ization and motor activity. 

3. Product maps to illustrate resources. Concrete 

interest is attached to this kind of work as 
long as pupils are encouraged to place actual 
resources such as grains, minerals, kinds of 
trees, etc., on the map. 

4. Have a bulletin or scrap-book for interesting 

articles brought by the children. The latter 
is recommended for permanent use. The 
teacher may find it necessary to reject some of 
the material selected by the children, but after 
a little experience the children will them- 
selves be able to select what is worth pre- 



GEOGRAPHY 179 

serving-. Such a book becomes a permanent 
source of interest and information for succeed- 
ing- classes, 

5. Have pupils prepare suitable review questions 

at home. The abuse of this practice seems to 
be the only valid objection to this kind of con- 
structive work. All the general acts in the 
school are tending- toward habituation of a de- 
sired kind and so there seems to be no good 
reason why pupiTs should be denied the right 
to take an active part in making the questions 
for review or for examination. The teacher's 
supervision is needed at all times, but that is 
no reason for rejecting all the work of this 
kind. A thorough justification may be found 
in a little actual experience. 

6. Assign topics for discussion by individuals. 

Limit the number so that the whole recitation 
need not be given to this kind of training. A 
few topics intelligently discussed will give 
variety to the exercise and also stimulate a 
wholesome interest in this kind of original re- 
search. Do not permit pupils to hold notes 
while speaking; encourage them to remember 
as much as they can. Have the pupil who is 
speaking face the class. 

7. Have debates in grammar grades. These de- 

bates serve as a valuable kind of review. The 
pupils are required to select the essential 
facts, to weigh them in comparison with other 
facts, and then to use their reasoning powers 
in defending what they hold to be the facts of 
most importance. The following subjects for 
debate are suggested : Germany vs. United 
States; limited Monarchy vs. Republic; East- 
ern United States vs. Western United States, 



180 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

taking- Mississippi River as a dividing- line; 
Railroads vs. Steamships in the Development 
of Commercial Prosperity. 

8. Commercial trips. These trips are journeys 

from one port to another. Their purpose is 
general review. Pupils must name the ports, 
the steamships lines connecting, the cargo, 
the cities passed, the status of respective na- 
tions, the favorable or unfavorable climatic 
conditions, ocean currents, return cargo, etc. 
Encourage pupils to sketch outline map to in- 
dicate the journeys made. 

9. Geographical cards. Many excellent series of 

geographical cards are issued by the various 
publishing houses. Some of these cards are 
intended only for review^, while others furnish 
interesting- information of literary, historic and 
scientific value. For personal use, teachers 
can make such cards covering- the specific 
work of their own grade. 
10. Competition. The kind of interest sustained by 
spelling matches and other competitive drills 
can likewise be applied in review in geography. 
An interesting application of this kind of drill 
is the assigning- of each child to one country 
in Europe, for example, and then asking him 
to be ready to present a complete defense of 
all the advantages of his country. The black- 
board may be divided into sections so that 
each child may write a list of the important 
points in his defense. 

301. The globe and its uses. — Every class in geography 
should have a globe. Better yet if every pupil can have one 
during certain recitation periods and study periods. No child 
can learn all his geography by personal study of the earth it- 



GEOGRAPHY 181 

self, and so a g-lobe should be made the most useful objective 
aid in all stages of the work in g-eography. Expensive globes 
are not necessary; in fact, complex and elaborate representa- 
tions are confusing. A large globe can be made of clay, paper, 
or wood. Then paint the surface black and observe the ad- 
vantage and delight in using crayon to illustrate the point of 
the early lessons in geography. 

The latest requirements in the course in geography require 
frequent use of the globe. Some of such uses in teaching are 
suggested here. 

1. Shape of the earth. The earth is an oblate 

spheriod. Then show the flattened surface at 
the poles. To carry the suggestion further, 
illustrate the flattening process by whirling a 
ball of moist dough on a wire or rod as axis. 

2. Axis, poles, equator. 

3. Rotation of earth. This will give foundation for 

later teaching of causes of day and night. 

4. Revolution of earth. This will lead to causes of 

change of seasons. 

5. Inclination of axis, zones, ecliptic, latitude, 

longitude, meridians and parallels. 

6. Distribution of land and water. Draw line 

around globe and observe which hemisphere 
has the more land. 

7. Relative position of continents, countries, oceans, 

seas, etc. 

8. Relief globe for illustrating surface. 

9. Commercial routes to show the world's highways 

of commerce. 
10. Use the globe in every development lesson to 
remedy defective ideas arising from studying 
a flat map. 

302. The shape of the earth.— It is a difficult matter for pupils 
to understand all the facts used to prove that the earth is a 
sphere, but this difficulty is not a valid reason for dropping that 



182 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

work altog-ether. Pupils can understand some of the proofs; 
later in school life more proofs will seem clear; and during- all 
the g-eog-raphy work, the pupils will be making- useful infer- 
ences because they have faith in the conclusion. This topic 
is a valuable one because it invites thoug-ht all through life. 
I. Aim. To prove that the earth is a sphere. 
II. Preparation. The very announcement of the aim 
arouses curiosity. Additional interest may be 
awakened bj^ having a cube, a cardboard disc, 
a wire hoop, a large globe, and a small g-lobe 
for each pupil. 
III. Presentation. The proofs involve personal experience 
and derived information. 

1. Horizon is always a circle. 

This proof is a matter of observation. It is true 
for all locations. Use wire hoop to illustrate. 
Take any point within hoop, keep hoop in the 
plane of vision, and the limiting line of vision 
is always circular. 

2. "When ships are approaching, masts are seen 

first, then the lower part of the masts, and 
finally the whole ship. 
This is likewise a matter of actual observation. 
Illustrate by moving objects on the globe. 

3. New stars come into sight as we reach new lati- 

tude. 

This is information from the experience of others. 
Show that this change in the sky may be due 
to the curved surface of the earth. Use pointer 
held ag-ainst object moved on g-lobe and observe 
arc described by end of pointer. 

N. B. These three proofs simply indicate that 
the earth has a curved surface. 

4. The earth has been circumnavigated. 

This is a fact in history. Recall Magellan's 



GEOGRAPHY 183 

voyag-efrom Spain across the Atlantic, through 
the Straits of Magellan, over the Pacific to 
India, around the Cape of Good Hope and 
thence back to Spain. That voyage in 1519 
and 1520 vv^as the first complete circuit of the 
globe. Shov^^ commercial routes around the 
w^oi-ld. Show by cardboard disc that the cir- 
cumference is a way leading back to any 
starting point; but a passage over the edge of 
the plane surface of the card would not lead 
back. Recall fear of sailors on first voyage of 
Columbus. They thought they would drop off 
the flat surface west of Spain and never be 
able to return. 

5. Earth's shadow on the moon in an eclipse is al- 

ways a circle or part of a circle. None but a 
spherical body can cast a circular shadow in 
any position. 
Illustrate this by holding cube in the sun. Like- 
wise with disc, pencil, pointer, book, etc. 
Observe shadow of pupil. The shape of the 
shadow is like the shape of the body casting 
the shadow. Briefly explain eclipse and show 
pictures of eclipses. 

6. Analogy. All the other planets are seen to be 

spherical, and it is not probable that the earth 
is an exception. 

This fact about other planets is verified by as- 
tronomers. Use of powerful telescopes is an 
interesting topic. 

N. B. These proofs show that the earth is a 
sphere. The following proofs are intended to 
demonstrate the flattening at the poles; in 
other words, the earth is an oblate spheroid. 
Proofs 8, 9, 10 should not be given in elementary 
work in geography. 



184 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

7. It is a law of all rotating- bodies that they rotate 

upon their shortest diameter. If a spherical 
body in a fluid state be rotated, its axis of 
rotation will become its shortest diameter. 

8. By actual measurement of the arcs of meridians, 

it is found that a degree increases in length 
towards the poles. This shows that the arcs 
near the poles are arcs of larger circles. 

9. A pendulum vibrates more rapidly near the poles 

than at the equator. This is due to greater 
force of gravity. 
10. Bodies increase in weight when moved from the 
equator to the polar regions. This is partly 
due to gravity as in 9. 
IV. Conclusion. The earth is an oblate spheroid. Its 
polar diameter is 26.48 miles shorter than its 
equatorial diameter. 

303. Climate. — The comprehensive use of the word climate 
requires a study of temperature, moisture, and all the modify- 
ing conditions of each. Temperature embraces the variations 
of heat and cold; weather relates to daily temperature; 
climate means an average of weather conditions during an ex- 
tended period. Moisture is water in any of its forms. 

The conditions affecting climate can seldom be considered 
alone; they modify one another. Younger pupils cannot under- 
stand all of the facts at first, but later study will utilize what 
is understood in the early lessons. These modifying condi- 
tions are often studied in relation to causes and effects. 

1. Latitude. Climate becomes colder as distance 
increases north or south from the equator. 
The region of the equator receives the vertical 
rays of the sun ; the regions north or south re- 
ceive heat from oblique rays; the polar regions 
are deprived of heat and light for certain 
periods. This difference in vertical and ob- 



GEOGRAPHY 185 

lique rays of the sun is due to the inclination 
of the earth's axis. The earth's radiation of 
the heat received is the fundamental condition 
to be considered here. 

2. Altitude. The general rule is that cold in- 

creases with altitude. Three hundred feet 
make a difference of one degree. Rapid radi- 
ation of heat is the principal cause. 

3. Proximity to the sea. Effect is toward uniform 

climate; cooler in summer, warmer in winter. 
The sea absorbs heat and radiates heat more 
slowly than the land. Hence, cool breezes from 
the sea in summer, warm breezes in winter. 

4. Prevailing winds Climate is modified by heat, 

cold and moisture distributed by winds. Sea 
breezes carry much moisture; land breezes are 
dry winds. 

5. Position and direction of highlands. Highlands 

mo'.ify climate by shutting off hot or cold 
wi ids; by condensing moisture till it falls as 
rain; and by intercepting moisture-bearing 
winds. 

6. Slope of country. Note how slope may favor cli- 

mate under each of the five conditions already 
mentioned. 

7. Nature of the surface. Forests equalize tempera- 

ture and prevent droughts and floods. Deserts 
and sandy soils radiate heat rapidly; clay 
soils retain heat and moisture. Large areas 
of cultivated land absorb and radiate heat 
more rapidly than grazing lands. Bogs, 
marshes and other lowlands tend to cool the 
air and cause fogs. Rocky surfaces heat and 
cool quickly. 

8. Ocean currents. See Gulf Stream, Japan Cur- 

rent. 



186 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Western Alaska. Inference from latitude and 

altitude, cold; but proximity to sea, warm 
winds and westerly slope favor mildness of 
climate. 

2. Newfoundland same latitude as Ireland. New- 

foundland cold by latitude, by Arctic current, 
by prevailing- winds; Ireland has warm climate 
on account of Gulf Stream, winds, nature of 
surface. 

3. The g-reat deserts of Utah and Nevada are caused 

by the position and direction of the Sierras; 
moisture shut off and precipitated. 

304. Forms of moisture. — Since moisture has so much to do 
with climate, it is necessary to consider the forms of moisture, 
their causes, and a particular explanation of rain. 

1. Water vapor is a name given to moisture in an 

invisible form. Water which passes into the 
air by evaporation may be said to exist as 
water vapor. 

2. Dew is one form of condensed vapor. If air con- 

taining- water vapor be cooled, the vapor will 
approach saturation, since the lower the tem- 
perature, the less the capacity for water vapor. 
On clear, calm nights the soil and vegetation 
radiate heat; the surrounding air becomes 
cooler; hence, vapor is condensed into small 
drops of water. The temperature at which 
condensation occurs is the dew-point. 

3. Frost is frozen dew. Frost is formed when the 

dew-point is below 32 degrees Farenheit. 

4. Fog. A visible mass of vapor on or near the 

ground is fog. Condensation is caused by the 
meeting of warm air and cool air. Thus the 
Newfoundland fog is caused by the warm air 



GEOGRAPHY 187 

from the Gulf Stream meeting- the cool air from 
the Arctic Current. 

5. Clouds are visible masses of vapor floating- in 

the air. 

6. Mist is vapor falling in very small drops. 

7. Rain is condensed moisture which falls when it 

becomes heavier than the atmosphere. 

8. Hail is frozen rain. 

9. Snow is frozen vapor. 

10. Glaciers are rivers of ice. 

11. Icebergs are portions of glaciers broken off and 

floating in the ocean. 

305. Rain. — The four processes requiring explanation are 
evaporation, condensation, saturation, precipitation. 
I. Evaporation. Familiar facts from observation. 

1. Steam is condensed vapor coming from heated 

water. 

2. Heat from the sun or from other sources turns 

liquids into water vapor, and then the water 
vapor rises in the air. 

3. Water evaporates from clothes hung on a line. 

4. Ink evaporates from wells. 

5. Hands become chapped in spring because winds 

cause rapid evaporation. 

6. Some ponds and brooks dry up in the summer. 

7. Place dish of water in the sun and notice the 

effect. 

8. Roads, sidewalks and porches dry rapidly after 

a rain; Sun and wind hasten evaporation. 

9. During hot afternoons in summer, the sun can be 

seen "drawing water"; i. e., actual evapora- 
tion can be observed. 
10. Definition. The process of moisture passing in- 
to water vapor, under the action of heat, is 
evaporation. 



188 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

II. Condensation. 

1. Steam is not strictly water vapor since steam is 

visible. Water vapor, partially condensed by 
contact with cool air, is steam; and further 
condensation into water can be produced by 
having- the steam come into contact with cold 
glass, slate or other surface. 

2. Moisture from the breath condenses on cool 

window panes. 

3. Moisture condenses on the outside of a pitcher of 

water. 

4. When pupils say they see their breath on a 

cold day, they see only the condensation of the 
moisture in their breath. 

5. Definition. The process of water vapor or other 

forms of moisture passing- into water, under 
the action of cold, is condensation. 

III. Saturation. Condensation of moisture in the atmos- 

phere is caused by the cool surfaces of forests, 
hills, mountains, or by cool currents of air. 
Saturation denotes simply the extent of con- 
densation ; it is all the moisture that the 
atmosphere can hold. 

IV. Precipitation. When saturation causes the moisture 

to become heavier than the air, the moisture 
falls as rain. This condition is called pre- 
cipitation. 

SUMMARY FOR APPLICATION. 

1. Heat of sun converts water into water vapor. 

The greater the heat, the greater the evapora- 
tion. 

2. Hot air can hold more water vapor than cold air. 

3. When hot air containing water vapor becomes 

cooler the vapor condenses into clouds. 



GEOGRAPHY 189 

4. The clouds become saturated by the uniting of 

the particles of water, and then rain falls as 
soon as the weight is more than the air can 
sustain. 

5. Rainfall is constant in a belt about five degrees 

wide near equator; periodic, north and south 
of the constant belt ; variable, beyond the 
limits of the periodic belts. 

6. Rains purify the air, modify climate, clean the 

surface of the earth, and help sustain all ani- 
mal and vegetable life. 

7. Notice the circulation of water : Rains supply 

springs, brooks, rivers, and all other sources 
of moisture; springs, brooks and rivers unite to 
supply larger bodies of water; evaporation 
furnishes moisture in the form of water vapor 
for the air; water vapor condenses into clouds, 
particles unite and fall as rain. Think how 
this circulation is a natural way of sustaining 
the conditions required for agriculture, manu- 
factures, commerce, and the leisure joys of life. 

306. Glaciers. — This lesson need not be difficult if teachers 
will distinguish known and unknown. 

I. Preparation. Recall hill, mountain, snow-capped 
summit of mountains; the melting, moving and 
falling of snow on roofs, hills and known 
mountains; successive thawing, snowing and 
freezing on skating ponds; the familiar pro- 
cesses of wetting and packing snow in making 
houses, forts, snow-men. 
II. Presentation. Most of the facts are familiar. Larger 
applications are required. 
1. Formation. Heavy snowfall on mountains dur- 
ing long winters. Summers too short to melt 
all the snow. Year after year snowing, thaw- 



190 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

ing-, melting-, packing and freezing- continue. 
Thus the immense mass of snow and ice is 
formed into a g-lacier. 

2. Movement. The slope of the mountain, the thaw- 

ing- and the weight of the glacier will tend to 
cause a movement. Amount, one foot or more 
in a day. The top of the glacier moves faster 
than the bottom, the center faster than the 
sides. Why ? Tall, narrow glaciers move 
more rapidly than broad ones. Why ? 

3. Action of the glaciers. Huge rocks are torn 

away by the sides and bottom of the glaciers. 
Some of these rocks are crushed and dis- 
tributed as soil, while others, badly scratched, 
are left in the pathway of the glacier. Such 
rocks are found on Long Island and in many 
parts of New England and New York. 

4. Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Alaska are 

the homes of glaciers. The western coast of 
Norway is a series of beautiful fiords caused 
by glacial action. 
III. Drill. Whether named as application or continued 
presentation, this lesson is made more vivid 
by the following. 

1. Pictures of glaciers. 

2. Pictures of fiords. 

3. Stereopticon views. 

4. Magazine articles on life in the Alps. 

5. Blackboard drawings. This subject is adapted 

to crayon illustration. 

6. Geography readers and other correlated ma- 

terial. 

7. Allied topics for collateral reading or for future 

lessons: Crevasses and Moraines; the Ice Age 
in North America; Icebergs. 



GEOGRAPHY 191 

307. Icebergs. — See lesson on glaciers. Icebergs are parts 
of glaciers. When the forward part of a glacier moves into 
the ocean, the force of the water lifts up the submerged part 
and breaks it off. This detached mass of ice then floats away 
as an iceberg. Ice is only a little lighter than water, and so 
only one-eighth of the iceberg remains above the surface of the 
water. The course of icebergs is directed by winds and ocean 
currents. Icebergs cool the temperature, cause fogs, and en- 
danger navigation. 

308. The seasons. — Pupils living in the temperate zones are 
familiar with spring, summer, autumn and winter, but many 
pupils never fully understand summer and winter in the frigid 
zones and wet and dry seasons in the torrid zones. A season 
seems to stand for fixed temperature within definite zone 
boundaries. But as climate is the result of many modified 
causes, so the seasons yield to local conditions as we pass 
from zone to zone. 

FACTS. 

1. The sun illumines but half the earth at once. 

2. The earth revolves around the sun once in 365 

days. 

3. The earth's axis is inclined 23)^° to the plane of 

its orbit. 

4. The earth's axis always points in the same direc- 

tion. The north pole points toward the north 
star. 

5. Temperature depends upon direction, duration 

and distance of the sun's rays. 

INFERENCE. 

Different parts of the earth's surface will re- 
ceive different degrees of heat during the year. 
These differences may be stated in describing 
each of the seasons. See geography for draw- 
ings. 



192 MKTHODS IN EDUCATION 

1. Spring. On the 20th of March the sun's rays 

are vertical at the equator; the circle of 
illumination intersects the poles ; days and 
nigfhts are equal everywhere, and heat is in- 
creasing- in the northern hemisphere. This is 
the vernal equinox and the season is called 
spring-. 

2. Summer. On the 21st of June the sun's rays are 

vertical at the Tropic of Cancer; the circle of 
illumination extends 23>^° beyond the north 
pole and falls short 23>^° of the south pole; 
days and nig-hts are longest in the northern 
hemisphere and shortest in the southern; heat 
is g-reatest in the northern hemisphere. This 
is the summer solstice and the season is sum- 
mer. 

3. Autumn. On the 22nd of September the sun's 

rays are again vertical at the equator; the 
circle of illumination intersects the poles; days 
and nights are equal as on March 20; heat is 
decreasing in the northern hemisphere and in- 
creasing in the southern hemisphere. This is 
the autumnal equinox and the season is 
autumn. 

4. Winter. On the 21st of December the sun's rays 

are vertical at the Tropic of Capricorn; the 
circle of illumination extends 23>^° beyond the 
south pole and falls short 23 j^^ of the north 
pole; days are longest in the southern hemi- 
sphere and shortest in the northern; heat is 
greatest in southern hemisphere. This is the 
winter solstice and the season is winter. 

309. Zones. — Divisions of the earth's surface corresponding 
to the amount of heat received and to the varying length of 
days and nights are zones. 



GEOGRAPHY 193 

The lesson on the seasons g-ives the essential facts used in 
this lesson. This is simply a classification of those facts. 

1. Torrid Zone lies between Tropics of Cancer and 

Capricorn. 47 deg-rees or 3250 miles wide. 
Torrid means hot; this zone is the hottest por- 
tion of the earth. Days and nights nearly 
equal. Two seasons, wet and dry. 

2. North Temperate Zone lies between Tropic of 

Cancer and the Arctic Circle. 43 degrees or 
3000 miles wide. Days and nights vary in 
length. Temperature varies; four seasons. 

3. North Frigid Zone is north of the Arctic Circle. 

Width from Arctic Circle to north pole 23 >^ de- 
grees or 1625 miles; modern texts speak of the 
widths as 47 degrees. Oblique rays of the sun 
part of the year. Days vary in length from 24 
hours to 6 months. Two seasons, summer and 
winter. 

4. South Temperate Zone is bounded by Tropic of 

Capricorn and Antarctic Circle. 43 degrees 
wide. Four seasons opposite in time to North 
Temperate Zone. 

5. South Frigid Zone. Size similar to North Frigid. 

Days and seasons opposite to North Frigid. 

310. Isotherms. — Isotherms or isothermal lines are lines 
drawn upon a map or globe connecting all places having the 
same average temperature. Thus the isotherm of 50^ Faren- 
heit passes through New York at 40"^ latitude and London at 
50" latitude, making a dip of 10 degrees in latitude. The true 
climatic zones do not correspond to the astronomical zones al- 
ready discussed. The Torrid Zone is bounded by 70° F. ; the 
Temperate, by 70" F. and 32° F. ; the Frigid is below 32° F. 

It is interesting to have the class follow a few isotherms 
around the earth and ascertain the causes for variation i^ 
latitude. Such an exercise will apply the facts under causes 
of climate. 

14 



194 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

311. Latitude and longitude. 

I. Aim. To understand latitude and longitude as means 
of locating places on the earth. 

II. Preparation. Conversational exercise about familiar 
ways of locating things. Numbers for rooms, 
coat hooks, houses; aisles and rows of seats in 
the schoolroom; avenues and streets in the city. 
Show plan of regular section of a city where 
streets and avenues are at right angles. None 
of these ways adapted to earth as a Avhole; 
hence, necessity for another way. 

III. Presentation. Have circular disk, blank globe, maps 
and mapped globe. Draw axis and equator 
on circular disc and blank globe. These give 
starting points for measuring. 

1. The name of the equator is known. Measure 

north and south in inches. Show impractical 
use of such standards as inch, rod or mile. 
Tell that the degree is the unit and that every 
circle contains 360 degrees. This number 
was chosen because it is divisible by all num- 
bers from 1 to 12 except 7 and 11. These facts 
must be accepted; they do not admit develop- 
ment. 

2. For latitude, tell that the equator is starting 

point for measurement north or south. Hence, 
places on the equator have no latitude; they 
are marked 0"^. Now draw a circle passing 
through the poles; elicit that the north pole is 
a terminus in measuring north latitude, that 
the south pole is a terminus for south latitude; 
that the distance from the equator to either 
pole is one-fourth of the whole circle, or 90 de- 
grees ; that the limits of latitude are 0° and 
90% 



GEOGRAPHY 195 

3. Parallels. Lines can be drawn parallel to the 

equator for convenience in indicating- lati- 
tude. Call such lines parallels. Why? 

4. Definition. The distance in deg-rees north or 

south of the equator is latitude. 

5. For long-itude, another starting- point evidently 

required. Tell pupils that the meridian pass- 
ing- throug-h Greenwich, Eng-land, is the Prime 
Meridian. Prime means first; meridian means 
midday because all places on it have midday 
at the same time. 

6. Draw Prime Meridian on black g-lobe or indicate 

it on mapped g-lobe. Two kinds of longitude, 
east and west. Have two pupils move objects 
from Prime Meridian east and west around 
the equator and thus observe that the maximum 
east or west long-itude is one-half way around 
the earth, or 180 degrees. 

7. Meridians. Lines are necessary for indicating 

longitude; hence, the meridians. 

8. Varying length of degrees of longitude. Observe 

meridians on g-lobe and maps; mark meridians 
and cut sections from apple, watermelon or 
other spherical forms. Make pupils see that 
greatest leng-th of a degree of longitude is on 
the equator; at the poles, 0°. 

9. Definition. Distance in degrees east or west 

from the Prime Meridian is longitude. 
IV. Applications. 

1. Practice in reading latitude and longitude at 

top and bottom of maps. Here explain that 
meridian of Washington is also used. 

2. Find actual latitude and longitude of specified 

cities and countries. 

3. Give latitude and longitude of certain places and 

have pupils find places. 



196 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. Location of ships at sea. All ships have chro- 
nometers showing- accurate time at Greenwich. 
For instance, suppose the sun indicates 10 a. m. 
when the chronometer indicates 3 p. m. Since 
any spot on the earth's surf ace passes through 
360 degrees in 24 hours, each hour is equivalent 
to IS degrees. The difference in time between 
chronometer and sun is S hours, or the equi- 
valent of 75 degrees. • Hence, the ship is in 75° 
west longitude. The longitude is west be- 
cause the time by the sun is earlier than the 
time by the chronometer. Reverse the facts 
and the longitude would be 75 east. 

312. International Date Line. — If a man starts westward from 
London to travel around the world, he must set his watch back 
one hour for every IS degrees passed over if he wishes to have 
the correct local time. This would require twenty-four changes 
during the journey around the world, and thus he will lose 
twenty-four hours or a whole day. 

If he started eastward from London, he would set his watch 
ahead twenty-four times, and thus he would gain a day. 

To overcome such differences, the nations have agreed upon 
a place where time shall be changed. That place is the 180th 
meridian east and west from Greenwich. Suppose the two 
men start from Greenwich near London, one going eastward 
and the other westward. The one traveling eastward will 
find the time twelve hours later than when he started while 
the one traveling westward will find the time twelve hours 
earlier. So the latter in crossing the line on Wednesday must 
call the day Thursday; while the one traveling eastward in 
crossing the line on Wednesday must call the day Tuesday. 

313. Standard Time.— The railroads of the United States 
have agreed upon scheduled places for changing time. Fol- 
lowing are the divisions: 

75th meridian. Eastern Time. 
90th meridian. Central Time, 



GEOGRAPHY 197 

105th meridian. Mountain Time. 
120th meridian. Pacific Time. 
It is evident that the difference in time between any two of 
these divisions is one hour. 

314. Volcanoes. Concrete presentation. — One device for giving^ 
pupils a concept of volcanoes is to observe coke, ashes and 
iron slag-, which are known products resulting- from the ac- 
tion of heat; to explain the formation of the earth by the pro- 
cess of cooling of the surface while the interior still remained 
hot; to make drawings to illustrate earth's crust, heated in- 
terior and cracks in earth's crust; to show picture of active 
volcano; and to read or give vivid description of the action and 
results. This plan gives the general idea of a volcano with- 
out much emphasis upon details. 

Another presentation. — This plan involves a scientific treat- 
ment of the topic. In matter and method it is suited to older 
pupils. Heat of the interior of the earth is explained and 
proved as follows : 

1. Hot springs are evidence of interior heat. Some 

found as far north as Iceland. 

2. Geysers are another indication of interior heat. 

3. Increasing heat in mines. Heat increases about 

one degree with every sixty feet of descent into 
the earth. 

4. The nebular hypothesis regarding the formation 

of the planets explains the existence of the 

heated interior and the cooling crust. In the 

process of cooling the contraction causes many 

fissures, foldings and openings in the crust 

or surface of the planet. 

Action of volcanoes. Water from the surface of the earth 

passes through the openings into the heated interior; the heat 

expands the water into steam, and this added power causes 

an explosion or eruption. The matter thrown out during an 

eruption is lava, or melted rock, pumice stone, water, steam, 



198 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

sand, mud, cinders, and ashes. The opening- throug-h which 
the materials are forced is the crater of the volcano. 

Noted volcanoes. Mauna Loa and Kilauea in Hawaii, 
Chimborazo in South America, Hekla in Iceland, Etna in 
Sicily, and Vesuvius near Naples in Italy. 

Graphic aids. 

1. Pictures of extinct, dormant and active volcanoes. 

2. Drawings of vertical section showing- base, cone, 

crater ; the process of mountain building 
around crater; the contour of the volcanic 
mountain and the distribution of ejected ma- 
terials. 

3. Maps showing location of principal volcanoes. 

4. Specimens of pumice stone, lava, ashes, etc. 

5. Narration, description and illustration of the 

destruction of Pompeii. 

6. Stereopticon views. 

Definitions. A volcano is a mountain or hill, usually more 
or less conical in form, from which lava, cinders, steam, sul- 
phur g-ases, and the like are ejected; — often popularly called 
a burning- mountain. — Webster. 

This definition is scientifically inaccurate. A volcano is 
not necessarily a mountain ; the mountain is the result of the 
accumulation of material ejected by volcanic action. Again, 
a volcano is not a burning mountain; the explosion is not a 
process of consuming material by burning. 

A volcano is a hole in the earth's crust from which steam, 
lava, or ashes are or have been thrown. — Dexter and Garlick's 
Object Lessons in Geography, p. 155. 

A volcano is essentially a vent in the surface, through which 
rises some kind of molten rock, which, upon accumulating, 
builds a conical peak. — Tarr's Elementary Geology, p. 329. 

Illustration of eruption of Vesuvius. Apparatus. Large 
glass vessel, small bottle of red wine, clay or sand, water. 
Form miniature mountain on bottom of vessel; make small 
hole in cork of wine bottle and then cover bottle with sand; put 



GEOGRAPHY 199 

water in vessel. When ready, stir the water. The water re- 
moves sand from hole in cork and the wine ascends in a whir- 
ling- plume. —McKay's Mag-ic Experiments, p. 30. 

315. Winds. 

I. Circulation of the atmosphere. The air is very 
elastic and so it is easily put into motion by 
chang-es in temperature. Heat causes air to 
expand, become lighter, and rise. This up- 
ward current of warm air is replaced by 
heavier cool air which in turn rises after be- 
coming heated. Apply this explanation to 
the large areas in the equatorial regions and 
notice four great movements in the general cir- 
culation of the atmosphere : 

1. The inflowing surface winds. 

2. The uprising heated current. 

3. The outflowing winds at high elevations. 

4. The descending air at considerable distance 

north and south of the equator. 
II. Relation of air pressure and wind. The rising column 
of warm air pushes away the air above it, 
thus decreasing the barometric pressure; but 
the reverse is true in regard to pressure when 
the cooling air becomes heavier by condensa- 
tion. Then it follows from the last topic that 
wind and air pressure are closely related. 

316. Trade winds. 

I. The name. The name trade winds is given because 
commercial vessels take advantage of the aid 
given by these winds. 
II. Location. In Atlantic Ocean 8° to 29° N. and 3° N. 
to 28° S. In Pacific Ocean 2° to 25° N. and 2' 
to 21° S. latitude. It is sufficient to say about 
30° north and south of the equator. 



200 



METHODS IN EDUCATION 



Cause. Cooler air rushing- in to replace rising- 
air in equatorial reg-ions. See explanation in 
circulation of atmosphere. 

III. Direction. From the northeast in the northern hemi- 
sphere; from southeast in the southern hemi- 
sphere. Such incoming- air tends to blow from 
north and south; but the earth's surface at the 
equator is moving- eastward at the rate of 
seventeen miles a minute, and so the wind lags 
behind. 



equator 



IV. Effects. 

1. Aid navigation. Columbus followed this route. 
Coming- from cold regions, they absorb moisture 

and thus cause deserts. 

Absorbing- much moisture from the ocean, they 

produce abundant rainfall on sloping- coasts. 

The meeting of so much warm air at the equator 

produces an upward mttvement over an area 



2. 



4. 



GEOGRAPHY 201 

nearly 400 g-eographical miles wide. This 
area is the belt of equatorial calms. 

317. How to study a map. — This topic is deemed worthy of 
special discussion in the last revision of the syllabus in geo- 
g-raphy. It should be so. But just lay aside theoretical dis- 
putations for a while, join a 7B class, and study Asia with 
them. Here are the real conditions : 

1. Geography is disliked by some pupils because 

it has not been well taught. The pupils have 
not been taught how to use the text-book. 

2. Every pupil has a geography. The ownership 

of the book or the right to use the book is a 
native impulse waiting for invitation to react, 
according to James and Thorndike. The 
handling of the book gives employment to the 
hands, — another suggestion of freedom from 
mischief. The coloring of the map appeals to 
the eye. In brief, such presence of material 
means a kind of business that appeals to a 
healthy class. 

3. The teacher works with the pupils. There is a 

natural interest in such mutual observation, 

interpretation and discovery; and a derived or 

acquired interest follows for all pupils who 

experience for the first time the joy of finding 

how much can be learned without reading even 

one line of the text. 

The process of studying a map. A large globe, a map of 

Asia, a map of the world, and a relief map of Asia are ready. 

Light, heat, ventilation and comfortable position are physical 

requisites. Preliminary questions on globe and maps will 

secure attention and thereby prepare the minds for united and 

individual effort. Such questions will determine comparative 

location, size and shape; location of highlands and lowlands; 

general direction of mountains and peninsulas. Now turn to 



202 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

individual maps ; eag-erness g-uarantees activity. The map 
study g"ives information on these topics. 

1. Actual location by latitude and longitude; land 

and water boundaries. 

2. Size. The larg-est continent; the larg-est moun- 

tains, rivers, seas, bays, countries, peninsulas; 
and, by inference, the largest population, for- 
ests, animals. This inference requires later 
proof from text, 

3. Surface. The location, direction, extent and 

names of mountains; the three g^reat slopes as 
indicated by direction of flow of rivers; the 
names of rivers and the bordering- waters; im- 
portant lakes and seas. 

4. Climate. Probable conditions by comparison 

with North America; application and probable 
results of each of the causes affecting- climate. 
Here, ag-ain, is another invitation to later use 
of the text to verify inferences. 

5. Countries and their chief cities; apparent means 

of commercial intercourse. 

6. Industries, products, and commerce. Map study 

alone cannot g-ive the accurate knowledge re- 
quired but it can correlate old knowledge and 
also make pupils think and justify their 
thoug-hts in advance. 

7. The people. Prior information is considerable. 

Note vast extent of lands of the different 
peoples. 
Pupils' results from studying the map. 

1. Social pleasure. 

2. Self-satisfaction in progress. 

3. Prior knowledg-e recalled, applied, correlated. 

4. Desire to study text to verif}'^ conclusions. 

5. Consciousness of increasing power in studying-. 



GEOGRAPHY 203 

318. How to study the text. — There are certain difficulties 
in teaching- the intermediate g-rades and it is well to consider 
first the reasons why pupils do have such difficulties in using- 
the text in g-eography. 

1. Poor teaching-. It is a safe rule that says pupils 

should use text-books as soon as books can be 
used advantageously. But notwithstanding 
this view, some teachers do not require pupils 
to use the books furnished. The teachers make 
notes from the books, write the notes on the 
board or dictate them, have pupils copy and 
then memorize. This plan robs the pupil of his 
right to learn to do by doing; it is a waste of 
tiine; it exalts the memory; it develops a habit 
of absolute dependence upon the teacher. 

2. Defective books. Some text-books are badly 

planned. Pupils have to search in three or 
four parts of the book to find the required 
facts. Some books are not well arranged. 
The matter may be found in one place, but 
topics are not given; or if topics are given, the 
order is neither logical nor pedogogical. Other 
books are not adapted to the capacities of the 
pupils; scientific style, or undue emphasis of 
causal relations when the causes are not un- 
derstood, or the presentation of a confusing 
amount of details. 

3. Inactive pupils. This condition may be largely 

due to poor teaching and defective books. The 
pupils do not feel a necessity for such knowl- 
edge. In the section on how to study a map, 
a way of arousing a desire for study of text 
has been suggested. 
The process of studying the text. The six topics followed 
in the study of the map make a topical series for guidance in 
studying the text. Whether the arrangement of the text is in 



204 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

that order or not, the pupils are working- under definite aims. 
The pupils must classify the facts under the topics; the efforts 
must be systematic; and the mental result should be a tend- 
ency toward a habit of thinking-. This leads to the sugg-es- 
tions for aiding- pupils in studying- the text. 

1. Pupils must feel the need of the facts in the 

printed matter. 

2. Pupils should have a guide in their study, such 

as topics, questions, etc. 

3. The teacher should work with the pupils to see 

that they acquire proper habits of application 
and interpretation. There is too much scatter- 
ing- of energ-y. 

4. Have pupils read a portion of the text, tell ex- 

plicitly what the author means, and comment 
upon it or otherwise apply it. It is a very 
valuable exercise in observation to have pupils 
read exactly what is printed, g-ive its precise 
meaning-, and then express a personal opinion 
upon it. 

5. Proof. The printed text must disprove or verify 

the conclusion reached in the study of the map. 
Here is authority vs. opinion. Judgment and 
reasoning- are required in every complete act 
in this kind of study. The map might sugg-est 
the tundras as an inviting home for man, but 
the text describes those mossy swamps as 
suited only to nomadic tribes who manage to 
live upon fish and fur-bearing animals. 

6. Comparison. The study of North America and 

Europe has habituated pupils to associate 
climate, occupations and productions accord- 
ing to zones. Such types of knowledge are 
used in map studies; but the text must furnish 
the conclusive facts to enable the pupil to as- 
certain the truth by comparison and contrast. 



GEOGRAPHY 205 

Tabulated facts in parallel columns give a 
mode of visualizing- truth in the field of v^^orld 
geography. As in proof, here, too, the text 
must be used for accuracy. 

Synopsis. Critical study of the printed matter 
is insisted upon in each of the foregoing sug- 
gestions. Another means of mastering the 
text is analysis by outline. The value of this 
exercise is fully presented in the chapter on 
composition. 

Abstract. Another w^ay of making the thought 
of another a part of one's self. See chapter 
on composition. 

The text is a source of information for individual 
discussion, class debates, etc. See section 300. 



Chapter XIII. History and Civics. 

319. New York City suggestions in sections 319 to 327 inclusive. 

320. Early work in history.— In the lower elementary g^rades, 
topics introductory to history will be found in the fables and 
myths and in literature and geog^raphy lessons. As pupils in 
the earlier years take an intense interest in events associated 
with life and endeavor, the subject-matter of the lessons in 
history should be chiefly biography and the record of events 
which have visibly shaped or influenced the destinies of man. 
Only a brief sketch of each topic is expected; no notes should 
be dictated by the teacher; no home study should be required 
of pupils in grades below the eighth year. The reading of 
library books should be encouraged. 

321. Geographical background. — The teacher should see that 
pupils have a proper geographical background for all histori- 
cal events. Appropriate use should be made of pictures, 
reference books, and maps to give a fit setting to the narratives, 
to show the political and physical boundaries, to indicate 
territorial growth and expansion, and to illustrate the progress 
and purposes of movements in warfare. The judgment of the 
pupil should be exercised in tracing the causes as well as the 
progress and outcome of great historic movements. 

322. Current events, anniversaries, excursions. — Attention 
should be given to current events and to historic anniversaries, 
as Lincoln's Birthday, Washington's Birthday, Decoration 
Day, Independence Day, and Thanksgiving. In order to make 
the subject of history real and vivid pupils should be en- 
couraged to visit the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Ameri- 
can Museum of Natural History, the museum of the Brooklyn 
Institute, the historical and general libraries. 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 207 



CIVICS. 



323. Members of society. — Pupils should be taught in all 
grades, as far as they may be made to understand their re- 
sponsibilities and privileges as members of society, and that 
as such they owe duties to the school, to the family, to the 
neighborhood, to the city, the state, and the nation. In this 
way they may be led to comprehend the principles of govern- 
ment and their individual duties in connection with iti The 
necessity for obedience to authority should be dwelt upon, as 
also the moral obligation of working with the various depart- 
ments of the government and not against them. Wherever 
possible, the reasons for conduct should be explained. If the 
child knows the reason for any law, he will obey that law 
more readily. 

324. Topics for discussion in all grades. — In all grades there 
should be frequent discussion under these headings: Obedience 
to law; Why laws are made; Who makes the laws ? Who en- 
forces the laws? Why are law-breakers punished? 

325. Importance of local ordinances.— Principals and teachers 
are urged to lose no opportunity to impress upon pupils the 
importance of city ordinances that are specially applicable to 
local conditions. Pupils should be led to see that even slight 
departures from the standard of order and good administra- 
tion become very serious matters when many persons engage 
in them, and that, therefore, each individual should be careful 
to avoid acts, such as throwing paper and fruit skins into the 
streets, which, though trifling in themselves, would, if they 
became general, tend to impair the cleanliness and health of 
the city. In teaching the "duties of citizens and public of- 
ficials," special attention should be directed to the work of the 
departments that come under the immediate observation of 
pupils. 

326. Government by the people. — In the higher grades of the 
elementary course pupils should be led to appreciate the force 
of Bryce's statement that "the greatest problem that free 



208 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

peoples have to solve is how to enable the citizen at large to 
conduct or control the executive business of the state." It is 
very important that all young- people should be made to under- 
stand that in this country government is not something apart 
from the people, but that it is established by the people them- 
selves, and that there are orderly ways provided for giving 
effect to the will of the people. 

327. Aim of history and civics. — The educational aim of civics 
as of history is to give a body of ideas and a trend of action 
that will assist the child to become an intelligent and a patriotic 
citizen. 

328. The historical sense. — The historical sense is not a sixth 
"sense," nor a "faculty"; it is simply a feeling that the past 
can be rightly interpreted only when the student lays aside 
his own prepossessions, and seeks in the past itself a means 
of understanding the forces which moved the men of a bygone 
age, and when he enters sympathetically into the spirit which 
gave dignity to their institutions. — Bourne, p. 9, The Teach- 
ing of History and Civics. 

329. Value of the study of history. — While we have not thought 
it necessary to mention specific values of the studies, since all 
the studies are deemed worthy of places in the curricula, 
special mention should be made of the patriotic and the ethi- 
cal value of history rightly taught. The student acquires a 
zealous appreciation of the truth; and in balancing the rela- 
tions of men and events, a high estimate of civic virtue may be 
attained. Many writers mention interest, imagination and 
judgment as three of the useful results of the study of history. 

330. Text-book method. — Here again we must dissent from 
the adverse criticism of the use of text-books. The text-book is 
the source of information for every pupil and no teacher has a 
right to deprive the pupil of his right to use his own activity 
in the field of education, nor can any teacher take the place of 
an accepted text-book in this or any other subject. More ad- 
verse criticism of text-books is not needed ; some devotion to 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 209 

the ideal in teaching- pupils how to study a text-book is what 
is needed. 

331. The use of illustrations, — The word illustrations in this 
topic has reference to the pictures or other illustrations in the 
text-book itself. One essential of any g-ood text-book is that 
it shall not be overloaded with details. So, too, of the use of 
pictures. The illustrations are intended simply to strengthen 
the matter already given in the printed text. The limit to be 
observed is the truthfulness and the usefulness of the illustra- 
tions inserted. 

332. Collateral reading. — "The object of collateral reading- is 
twofold: it supplements a text- book, giving- the student ad- 
ditional information and describing- the same events from new 
points of view; and it also cultivates the student's interest in 
history as literature." This is Bourne's opinion as stated on 
pag-e 158. Gordy advises the use of a short list of g-ood refer- 
ences rather than the reading of many books. He advises that 
each pupil read one good reference book in addition to the 
text-book. 

333. The use of maps. — ^The geographical maps are abso- 
lutely necessary to fix the location of the principal places 
studied in history. This is one means of correlating history 
and geography. One caution to be observed is that the map 
shall not have too many places located upon it. Confusion 
must be avoided. 

334. Collection of prints and pictures. — In speaking of school 
decorations we advised the use of a few superior paintings in 
place of a large number of cheap prints and pictures. The 
same caution may be applied to history. It is suggested that 
a large scrap-book be used for keeping the prints and pictures 
instead of posting them on the walls of the schoolroom. 

335. Excursions. — Fortunate is the school that is located 
within the field of historic experience. Excursions under the 
plan described for teaching geography cannot fail to produce 

15 



210 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

satisfactory results in impressing the facts through the aid of 
concrete interest. 

336. Correlation. — Correlation with geography has already 
been mentioned in section 333. Literature is another study 
that can contribute a large share of interest and use. Master- 
pieces in poetry and prose often present the facts of history 
under the charm of literature. Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech 
is an apt illustration of the correlation of oratory and history. 

"The teaching of history should be intimately connected with 
the teaching of English: first, by using historical works or 
extracts for reading in schools; second, by the writing of 
English compositions on subjects drawn from the historical 
lessons; third, by committing to memory historical poems and 
other short pieces; fourth, by reading historical sketches, 
biographies and novels, outside of class work." — Committee 
of Ten, p. 164. 

337. Reviews. — Our point of view was expressed in a ge leral 
way in section 79. That view has particular application to 
history. Good teaching will require a summary at the close 
of each recitation; the assignment of home study will be largely 
a matter of review rather than advanced preparation; the 
making of outlines of the matter covered in the regular text or 
of the matter in collateral reading is another valuable exer- 
cise; and extemporaneous speaking upon assigned topics or 
brief written summaries during the recitation period will tend 
to systematize the whole work under some comprehensive plan 
of presentation. 

338. Open text-book recitation. — "An excellent suggestion is 
that of 'open text-book recitations,' in which with their books 
before them, pupils are asked questions on cause and effect, 
on relations with previous lessons, etc.; answers may, if neces- 
sary, be written out and corrected in class. Such an exercise 
trains pupils to take in the thought of a printed page, and to 
grasp the essential points, 



HISTORY AND CIVICS . 211 

"Such a system tends to encourage the habit of applying 
what one knows to a new problem. Still more helpful in the 
same direction are the off-hand discussions and impromptu 
debates which spring- up in an eager class, and which should 
be encouraged by every good teacher." — Committee of Ten. 

339. Topical method. — The supreme value of the topical 
method is exemplified in the work in history. The principal 
difficulty is that text books are not always arranged accord- 
ing to this plan. One view of the topical method in history 
presents a whole lesson under a series of topics arranged in 
logical or chronological order. These eight or ten topics, for 
instance, furnish a guide to whatever the pupil is expected to 
do in that recitation. Another view of the topical method 
selects one general topic for the subject of the recitation and 
then there are a few subordinate topics assigned to be covered 
in the various ways of conducting the recitation. One topic 
may be set for oral or written review; another may cover the 
required work in collateral reading; another may be for gen- 
eral discussion to develop the pupil's power of expression and 
his sense of sound judgment; while another may be the direct 
preparation for the work of the succeeding days or weeks. 
Whatever the arrangement of the topics may be, the aim is 
definite assignment. It is an effort to direct pupils toward 
what they should try to learn, where they may find informa- 
tion, and how they may make that information a part of their 
own mental possession. 

340. Verbal repetition.— It is not necessary to give much 
space to reasons why verbal repetition of the matter in the 
text is not the way to teach history. This kind of recitation is 
the cause of severe criticism against the teaching of the past ; 
but a little experience with teachers of this decade leads 
to a commendation of their tact and judgment in matters of this 
kind. 

341. What should be memorized. — "How far should pupils 
be expected to memorize ? 'A few things should be learned by 



212 ^ mi<:thods in education 

heart and, when forg-otten, learned again, to serve as a firm 
g-round-work upon which to group one's knowledge: without 
knowing the succession of dynasties, or of sovereigns, or of 
presidents, or the dates of the great constitutional events, the 
pupil's stock of information will have no more form than a 
jelly-fish.' But those few necessary facts ought to be clearly 
defined as only a framework to assist the memory. "— Com- 
mittee of Ten. 

342. Use of mnemonics. — Anything so artificial is not ap- 
proved as a method of teaching; but it is a device that may 
have some value for some pupils. The following illustration 
suggests an ingenious and helpful way of remembering the 
events connected with slavery agitation. 

Notice that the first letters of the seven lines spell slavery. 
Sixteen hundred nineteen — Introduced 1619. 
Law prohibiting slaves imported — 1808. 
Admission of Missouri — 1820. 

Violent opposition to annexation of Texas— 1845. 
Emancipation Proclamation — 1863. 
Rebellion the outgrowth — 1861-5. 
Year of 1865 — Thirteenth Amendment. 

343. Questions prepared by pupils. — This plan of promoting 
self-activity and co-operation has been emphasized, from time 
to time, in this book. Personal experience is the justification 
for such commendation. Gordy, in his notes To The Teacher, 
says : "The pupils should be required to prepare a written 
question on every lesson. The value of this simple device in 
leading them to note the working of cause and effect cannot 
easily be measured. If pupils have not been trained to ask 
such questions they may at first be diffident about it. They 
will also ask questions that call for yes or no or for single- 
word answers. With a little judicious help, however, they 
will soon begin to ask searching questions that will stimulate 
the interest of the entire class," 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 213 

344. Outline made by pupils. — We have spoken about making- 
outlines as a means of review. This plan is advocated as one 
of the best means of teaching- pupils how to select and compre- 
hend the essential points in the printed text. It is difficult at 
first, and needs the personal direction of the teacher; but a 
little practice in it g-ives a consciousness of g-rowing- power so 
that the pupil will soon be anxious to follow this kind of in- 
dividual work. 

345. Debates. — History furnishes material for the frequent 
us.e of short debates. The value of such exercises is outlined 
in section 502. 

346. Note books. — Elaborate notes are not useful to the ele- 
mentary pupils. The mere copying- of long- extracts is not a 
prudent investment of time or energ-y. Use note-books for the 
following- purposes : 

1. Summaries of work. 

2. Special topics or digests of them. 

3. Prog-ressive maps. 

4. Review questions. 

5. References that appeal to the owner of the book. 

347. Source method. — The source method of teaching- his- 
tory, as the word source implies, requires students to consult 
the orig-inal documents from which history is written, and 
then form their conclusions upon that material. This method 
applied in the elementary schools would be presented in a 
text-book not in narrative form, but in the form of summaries, 
tables and brief reproductions of the original documents. 
For elementary pupils, this method cannot be commended. 
The pupils lack the foundation knowledge for forming an 
opinion on the material furnished and, besides, they have not 
yet acquired habits of study that will enable them to inter- 
pret the materials without a great deal of collateral reading. 
The collateral reading in connection with an authorized text- 
book in the class may introduce the pupils to the source 
method in some lines of investigation. 



214 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

348. How to arouse interest.—The summary of the last 
twenty sections will present a number of points of view on the 
teaching of history. A condensed expression of the substance 
of these points of view will give the means of arousing- interest 
in teaching the subject to elementary pupils. 

349. Cause and effect. — Whatever the method of recitation 
may be, the training of the judgment will require pupils to 
trace the relations between cause and effect in all the great 
events of history. See causal series in geography, section 286. 

350. Progress maps. — A helpful means of stimulating visuali- 
zation is the use of progress maps. Outline maps can be 
secured from publishers and so pupils need take no time in 
marking the limits of latitude, longitude and boundaries. 
That part of map-drawing has little educational value. The 
progress map will then contain the location of the few princi- 
pal points under consideration. Thus in the study of the early 
years of the Revolutionary War the map will have the location 
of Boston, Saratoga, New York, Princeton, Trenton, Phila- 
delphia and Yorktown. A line may indicate Washington's 
route across from Long Island up the Hudson and then down 
through New Jersey. 

351. Chronology. — The learning of long lists of dates is no 
longer considered a legitimate part of history. The memoriz- 
ing of particular dates in relation to epochs or periods is all 
that is essential. 

352. Biography. — The study of the lives of particular men in 
connection with the different events in their careers, has been 
found a fascinating source of interest in history. The import- 
ance of the public events must determine the limit of such 
collateral reading. 

353. Use of outlines. — We have advocated the use of outlines 
made by the pupils and now the question arises regarding the 
use of outlines furnished for guidance in studying. Such out- 
lines would, of course, obviate the making of similar outlines 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 215 

by the pupils. Teachers differ in their views of the value of 
such outlines in connection v^ith the study of the advanced 
lessons, but there is almost unanimous opinion in favor of the 
outlines in reviewing- part or whole of the subject. 

354. Dramatization of historic events. — Teachers can hardly 
be expected to put the historic material into dramatic form for 
presentation in rhetorical exercises, but it is possible to secure 
such material already dramatized. Such exercises in school 
will be found one of the most valuable means of promoting- a 
healthy school spirit. A little play called the "Continental 
Congress," in which pupils take the parts of those who 
adopted the Declaration of Independence, may be mentioned 
as an illustration of this phase of the work in history. 

355. Local government. — The study of the forms and uses of 
local administration is a part of the early work in all the 
g-rades in New York City. It is what is called institutional 
presentation of history and civics. To impress the utility of 
such government, many of the schools have adopted forms of 
pupil self-g-overnment to represent the departments in the 
larg-er municipal org-anizations. Wherever the school maybe, 
it is possible for pupils to study the government related to 
them. 

356. Process of legislation.— Another means of increasing- 
civic knowledge is for pupils to make a special study of the 
three departments of g-overnment in the state and in the nation. 
The history of a bill from the time that it is introduced until 
it has been under judicial approval is one of the valuable 
topics in relation to history and civics. Turning- the class or 
the school into a legislative body for this purpose is one con- 
crete method of presenting the work. 

357. Pupil self-government. — See section 90. 

358. Institutional study of history and civics. — In the five 
departments of education mentioned in Butler's definition, the 
institutional inheritance is one of the forms. We have already 



216 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

mentioned in 355 what is done in this city. For specific refer- 
ence see section 9. 

359. Mental results. — Effort to develop the historic sense in 
the teaching- of history and civics may or may not succeed in 
attaining- the ide?l purposes of education as mentioned in the 
outlines in section 43. Failure of attainment in some cases is 
no reason for saying- that the proper study of history does not 
g-ive to the average pupil habits of right thinking-, right feel- 
ing-, and right willing. 

360. Habituation to civic requirements.— In discussing the 
ideals of education, citizenship is mentioned as one advocated 
by Horace Mann and John Dewey. For those who do not wish 
to consider education a preparation for the hereafter, the ideal 
of citizenship furnishes a satisfactory standard for effort; and 
for those who wish to make the supreme aim of education a 
preparation for the life to come, the ideal citizen may be con- 
sidered one whose living- in this life is a good preparation for 
the hereafter. The teacher who can influence his pupils to 
habituate themselves to adapt themselves to the requirements 
of the community in which they live, is doing all that can be 
expected from him under the general purposes of history and 
civics. 



Chapter XIV. Arithmetic. 

361. New York City view.— Sections 362 to 372 are from the 
New York City Course of Study. For special study consult 
McLellan and Dewey's The Psycholog-y of Number, Mc- 
Murry's Special Method in Arithmetic, David Eugene Smith's 
The Teaching- of Elementary Mathematics, and Young's The 
Teaching of Mathematics. 

362. Suggestions. 

"Much oral drill and blackboard work should be 
given. 

Answers should be tested approximately to ascertain 
whether they are probably correct. 

The results of addition, subtraction, multiplication 
and division should be proved before they are 
declared. 

Excessive repetitions of forms of analysis and elab- 
orate written explanations should not be re- 
quired. 

Definitions should not be required until the meanings 
of the terms to be defined are fully understood. 

363. The combinations. — Special importance is attached to 
the thorough mastery of the combinations in addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication and division. The following are the 
steps which should be followed in learning the combinations 
of each table : 

364. Addition and multiplication. 

1. Care should be taken that the pupils apprehend 

the nature of the required operations. 

2. The combinations that have been taught in the 

preceding grade should be reviewed frequently. 

3. The results of the new combinations should be 

determined in addition by counting objects, 



218 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

and in multiplication by adding the multipli- 
cand as many times as there are units in the 
multiplier. 

4. The entire table should be repeated with the ob- 

jects in view in addition, and with the addends 
in view in multiplication. 

5. The entire table should be repeated without the 

objects or addends in view. 

6. The results of combinations, misceUaneouslj' 

presented, should be given without the aid of 
any form of mnemonics or external devices. If 
a pupil misses a combination there are two 
methods of correction : in addition he may be 
told to count objects, and in multiplication to 
add numbers ; or he may be required to deduce 
the result of the combination in question from 
the nearest combination whose result he knows. 
(Thus he may ascertain that 6 X 7 = 42 from 
5x7 = 35, since 6 sevens are one seven more 
than 5 sevens.) The former method is object- 
ionable for two reasons : the performance of 
an isolated example will be of little value to 
aid association the next time the combination 
occurs ; and the pupil is in danger of forming 
the habit of using his fingers as counters. 
The value of the reference to the nearest known 
combination consists in the association of the 
combination in its proper relations with the 
other terms of a series. 

7. Exercises in finding the parts which constitute 

a number either as addends or as factors 
should follow the drills on tables. 

8. The combinations should be applied in the solu- 

tion of simple problems. 



ARITHMETIC 219 

365. Subtraction and division. 

1. Each combination in subtraction and in division 

should be related to its corresponding- com- 
bination in addition or in multiplication. In 
subtraction the minuend is the sum and the 
subtrahend is one of the terms of a combina- 
tion in addition ; in division the dividend is the 
product and the divisor is one of the terms of 
a combination in multiplication. 

2. The results should be stated without the relation, 

in order that they may be g-iven instantly. An 
error should be corrected by reference to the 
primary combination. 

3. The combinations should be applied in the solu- 

tion of simple problems, in order that their 
mastery may be seen to be a means to an end. 

366. Constructive and inventional exercises. — Aside from the 
consideration of their educational value, the constructive and 
inventional exercises of the seventh year have been selected 
with a twofold purpose in view : 

1. To furnish pupils with a knowledge of the essen- 

tial elementary principles involved in the work 
in mensuration in g-rade 8A. 

2. To furnish pupils with a knowledge of the con- 

structive principles employed in mechanical 
drawing and construction and in shop work. 
The method of teaching these exercises should 
be suggestive in form and spirit. Formal 
demonstrations should never be required. 

367. Problems. — Numerical relations may be found where- 
ever the mind seeks them ; hence problems may be derived and 
should be derived from the life of the home, the school, the 
farm, the laboratory, the factory and the railroad, as well as 
froin the shop and the bank. The limitation of problems to 
transactions in dollars and cents tends to give practical arith- 



220 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

metic a purely formal and disciplinary character ; on the 
other hand, excursions into other fields of human activity, 
while sacrificing nothing of the disciplinary value of the sub- 
ject, give it a varied and interesting content. Problems may 
be classified as simple, or those involving only one operation, 
and as complex, or those involving more than one operation. 

368. What to look for in the solution of problems.— The solu- 
tion of problems should be effected by the discovery of what is 
given, whaf z's r-eguired, and what is the relation between 
these terms. If difficulty is experienced in the determination 
of the relations between large numbers, small numbers should 
be substituted. 

369. Analysis -in solution. — A brief and well expressed form 
of analysis should be employed in the solution of problems to 
find a part of a number, to find a number when a part is 
given, to find what part one number is of another, and to find 
a number when the number plus or minus a part is given, 
whether common fractions, decimals, or per cent expressions 
are involved. 

370. Rote work criticised. — The mere manipulation of num- 
bers in a set order, which the pupils accept on authority as 
the means to a correct answer without comprehending the 
reason therefor, is a form of rote work that ought not to be 
tolerated except in the teaching of involved and difficult pro- 
cesses to young children, as for example, the process of long 
division, or the Euclidean process of finding the greatest 
common divisor. 

371. Progressive advance in difficulties by grades. — The follow- 
ing tabulation shows the progressive advance in the complexity 
of problems through the grades : 

lA. — Simple problems solved without formal explanations. 
The children represent the terms by objects and find the re- 
sults by counting; no term is greater than 10. These involve: 

1. Addition and subtraction. 

2. Multiplication and division. 



ARITHMETIC 221 

IB and 2A.— Simple problems solved without formal explan- 
ations. 

The children apply the combinations in addition and sub- 
traction as soon as they have mastered them; no term greater 
than 20. These involve : 

1. Addition and subtraction. 

The problems are similar to those in lA, but the 
results are found from a knowledge of the com- 
binations involved. 

2. Multiplication and division. 

The problems are similar to those in lA. 

Problems in multiplication are solved by writing 
the multiplicand as many times as there are 
units in the multiplier and by adding. 

Problems in division are solved as in lA by 
counting. 

2B and 3A.— Simple problems solved without formal explan- 
ations. 

The children apply the combinations in multiplication and 
division as soon as they have mastered them. These involve : 

1. Addition and subtraction. 

The problems involve larger terms than in the 
preceding grades, and the results are invari- 
ably found by aid of the combinations. 

2. Multiplication and division. 

The problems are similar to those in lA, but the 
results are found from a knowledge of the com- 
binations involved. 

3B.— Complex problems solved without formal explanations. 
These involve: 

1. Finding a fractional part of a number. 

2. Two operations— relations direct. 

4A.— Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve : 
1. Finding a number when a fractional part of it 
is given. 



222 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

2. More than one operation — relations direct. The 
problems are similar to those in 3B, but are 
explained formally by analysis. 

4B. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve : 

1. Finding- w^hat fractional part one number is of 

another. 

2. More than one operation — relations indirect. 

5 A. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve: 

1. Finding- a fractional part of a number. 

2. Finding a number when a fractional part is g-iven. 

3. Finding v^^hat fractional part one number is of 

another. 

4. Other problems usually given under the head of 

common fractions. 

5B. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve: 

1. Finding a decimal part of a number. 

2. Finding a number when a decimal part is given. 

3. Finding what decimal part one number is of an- 

other. 

4. Finding a number when the number plus or 

minus a fractioneil or a decimal part is given. 

5. Other problems usually given under the head of 

decimals. 

6 A and 6B. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These 
involve in 6A: 

1. Finding a per cent part of a number. 

2. Finding a number when a per cent part is given. 

3. Finding what per cent part one number is of an- 

other. 

4. Finding a number when the number plus or 

minus a per cent part is given. 

5. The problems usually given under the head of 

denominate numbers. 



ARITHMETIC 223 

These involve in 6B: 

1. The first four subdivisions of 6A as applied in 
business. 
Each should be related to the corresponding- 
problem in which a common fraction instead 
of a per cent expression is involved. 
7A. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve: 

1. Simple interest — direct case. 

2. Metric system. 

3. Foreig^n mone}^ 

4. Long^itude and time. 

5. Common relations. 

7B. — Complex problems solved both by analysis and by 
algebra. These involve: 

1. Simple interest — indirect cases. 

2. Simple interest — applications. 

3. Percentag-e — indirect cases. 

4. Problems solved by proportion. 

5. Common relations. 

8A. — Complex problems solved by analysis or by algebra. 
These involve : 

1. Mensuration. 

2. Business relations. 

3. Common relations easily expressed by two un- 

known quantities." 

372. Utility of arithmetic. — The history of mathematics shows 
that nearly all nations have put special utilitarian value upon 
arithmetic. Smith thinks the utility of mathematics has been 
overrated. 

373. Historical views. — A brief summary of historical views 
shows that thinkers have been contributing point by point 
what some recent writers seem to consider entirely new. A 
g-rouping of these respective contributions gives the substance 
of modern ways^of teaching. Consult Smith for full presenta- 
tion. 



224 MKTHODS IN EDUCATION 

1. Busse. Number pictures: number cards of today. 

2. Pestalozzi. Observation = perception. 

(a) Know numbers rather than figures. 

(b) Objective presentation; remove objects before 
drill. 

(c) Much oral abstract drill. 

3. Tillich. Special blocks: ratio. See Speer 

method. 

4. Kranckes. Concentric circles. 10, 100, etc. Spiral 

methods. 

5. Grube, 1842. All processes simultaneous. 1 to 

10 first year. 

6. Tank and Knilling-; counting-. 

(a) Numbers needed for counting. 

(b) Use number series. 2468, etc. ; count objects, 
then memorize. 

(c) Counting is basis of all elementary opera- 
tions. 

7. German spiral method based on concentric 

circles. 

8. Arithmetic in rhyme. 

9. All arithmetic based upon measurement of lines. 

10. All arithmetic based upon paper folding. 

11. Rein. Correlation. 

(a) Familiar objects in home, nature study, liter- 
ature, etc. 

(b) Series and method units. 

(c) Formal steps of instruction. 

374. Definition of number. — Number is a product of the way 
in which the mind deals with objects in the operation of making 
a vague whole definite. — -McLellan and Dewey, p. 32. 

Note that this definition considers the concept of number as 
the result of a mental process showing quantity. Other views, 
considered unsatisfactory, are : 

(a) "Number is a symbol." Entirely abstract; 
wrong, not in the mind. 



ARITHMETIC 225 

(b) "Number is identical with thing-s; it is a prop- 

erty of objects." Wrong-, as concept of num- 
ber can exist only in the mind. 

(c) "Number is a collection of units." "Scientifical- 

ly worthless," says Smith, p. 100. Why? 

375. Counting and measuring.— There is much discussion 
about whether counting or measuring- should come first in 
teaching number. The Course of Study requires both, but 
mentions counting first. Measuring requires the self-activity 
of the pupil, and interest will be stimulated if the pupil under- 
stands what he is doing when he is measuring ; but he can- 
not have any definite concept of measurement until he counts 
by using some unit of measurement such as foot, yard, pint, 
dime, etc. Hence, "all counting is measuring and all measur- 
ing is counting," as is said in McLellan and Dewey's 
Psychology of Number, p. 48 ; also in Smith, p. 104. When 
we count books in a library, we measure the library ; and we 
measure our weight by counting the number of pounds. 

The difference between counting and measuring is that in 
ordinary counting we use an undefined unit, a kind of vague 
measurement, as : 10 apples, 5 books. This counting of 10 
apple,s or 5 books becomes definite only when weight or value, 
i. e. measure, is known. So the two processes help each other. 

376. Aim of primary arithmetic. — The aim of primary arith- 
metic is the mastery of our material surroundings, not mathe- 
matical processes and discipline. — McMurry, p. 19 ; Smith, 
chapter II and p. 89. 

377. Methods of teaching the concept of number. — It is un- 
necessary to outline in detail the first steps in teaching pupils 
to count. Most pupils have a concept of number long before 
they enter school; all they need is drill in wider application 
of their knowledge. Some teachers use splints in this drill ; 
others use pencils, rulers, books, or the pupils themselves. 
The various devices are outlined in the next section, but through 

. 16 



226 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

all the variety runs the uniform principle of concrete presenta- 
tion. 

The first idea of number is never abstract. Slowly through 
the years of experience the mental process of abstraction pro- 
duces the abstract concept of number. Four sug-g-estions for 
concrete teaching are mentioned in the course of study. 

1. Scoring. This is simply a way of indicating 

the early impressions of number. The Arabic 
numerals are not so easily made as groups of 
vertical lines, thus : 

12 3 4 

I II III nil 

The drawing of such vertical lines to represent 
numbers is called scoring. 

2. By measurements and comparisons. Actual use 

of pint and quart, five-cent piece and dime. 
Comparison of groups of objects. 

3. Use of toy money in business operations. 

4. Use types in concrete problems. Here are the 

suggestive types : 

(1) If there are 3 apples in one group and 2 apples 
in another, how many apples are there in both ? 

(2) If 3 apples are taken out of a group of 5 
apples, how many apples remain ? 

(3) If there are 2 plants in a row, how many 
plants are there in 3 equal rows? 

(4) If 2 plants are placed in a row, how many 
such rows are required for 6 plants? 

(5) If 6 plants are placed in 3 equal rows, how 
many plants are there in each row ? 

"Exercises in counting should aid in column addition and 
in a mastery of the multiplication tables. Comparisons and 
objective measurements should lead primarily to thought, 



ARITHMETIC 227 

rather than to over-much figure work. Oral work should pre- 
cede and accompany all written work in every mathematical 
operation. Small numbers should be used in the illustration 
of principles." 

The counting- in the first term is limited to counting by I's 
to 20, and by lO's to 100. Later the pupils receive much drill 
in counting forwards and backwards by 2's, 3's, 4's, S's, etc. 
This is the process that gives the foundation for the tables in 
the four fundamental operations. This paragraph relates to 
New York City practice. 

378. Summary of modes of concrete number operations. — Notice 
that both measuring and counting are used in each of the 
devices in this summary. 

1. Counting visible objects, as chairs, birds, houses, 

children, apples, etc. 

2. Other objects as tooth-picks, buttons, beads, 
pencils, fingers, etc. 

3. The abacus, cubes, blocks, squares, etc. 

4. Demonstrative devices as distribution of papers, 

books, the marking off of positions at board, 
the paging of books, counting time on the 
clock, attendance records, thermometer ; in 
home geography, counting houses, making 
maps, etc. 

5. Standard units as gallon, pound, dollar, bushel, 

barrel, day, dozen, cubic foot, etc. Variety, 
practical units, ratios and fractions from use 
of these. 

6. Number pictures made of dots, lines, etc. ; domi- 

noes. 

7. In decimal scale, splints or tooth-picks in bun- 

dles of lO's and lOO's. 

379. The use of a book by pupils. The safe rule for the time 
of introducing a text-book in any subject is this : A book 
should be introduced as soon as children are able to use it to 



228 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

their own advantag-e. The averag-e child is not capable of 
reading well during- the first term of school life and so there 
is little or no advantage for him in trying to use a text-book 
in arithmetic. For this reason, the work of the first term is 
largely oral, but as soon as the child is able to make any use 
of a text-book in arithmetic he should be given that privilege. 
The work in mathematics should not depend largely upon the 
hearing ; it is another instance of multiple sense instruction. 
The interpretation of a printed problem requires more men- 
tal effort than the interpretation of a problem written on the 
board or dictated by the teacher. In the last two ways the 
pupil depends upon the assistance from the teacher. 

380. Devices for drill in primary grades.— All these suggested 
devices are only different ways in method ; they are not 
methods in arithmetic. Devices of any kind are intended to 
attract and maintain attention. Curiosity, competition and 
success are likely to secure interest. Different devices satisfy 
a desire for variety, and some of these have permanent value 
in being ready for use at any time. It is understood, of course, 
that these devices cover all the four fundamental operations — 
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. 

1. Cards. Number cards having the combinations 

on both sides of the card. 

2. Charts. Charts made with rubber pen. Figures 

large enough to be seen from any part of room. 

3. Mimeograph work. Copies made by mimeo- 

graph admit many uses. Some copies may 
contain the same work for the whole class 5 
other copies may have a few additional prob- 
lems for the faster workers ; a third kind may 
have different work for each pupil. 

4. Text-books. A good text-book — no other kind 

should be used — has scores of examples suited 
to drill purposes. Use the book. Teachers 
may now secure separate books for each grade 



ARITHMETIC 



229 



9. 
10. 



11. 



and these are excellent supplements to the 

class text-book. 
Special work on board. 
Circle. Figures outside circumference; number 

in center. 
Square. Similar to arrangement in 6. 
Two vertical lines crossing- two horizontal lines 

at right angles giving places for nine figures. 

Vertical, horizontal and diagonal drill. 
Dictation under limited time for answers. 
Competition under recorded time after definite 

assignment of work. 
Decimation. This device uses ten as a basis in 

each of the four fundamental operations. Fol- 
lowing is a table in counting : 






1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


Build to 100 


101 


102 


103 


104 


105 


106 


107 


108 


1(^ 



and then drill down and up. 



DECIMATIONS IN COMBINATIONS. 



0+1= 1 
10+1 = 11 
20+1=21 
30+1 = 31 
40+1=41 
etc. 



7+8=15 
17+8=25 
27+8=35 
37+8=45 
47+8=55 
etc. 



9 + 4=13 
19+4=23 
29+4=33 
39+4=43 

49 + 4=53 
etc. 



SUBTRACTION. 

99-6=93 
89-6=83 
79-6=73 
69-6=63 
59-6=53 
etc. 



MULTIPLICATION. 

3X 6= 18 
3X16= 48 
3X26= 78 
3X36 = 108 
3X46=138 
etc. 



230 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

381. How to mark papers.— This topic bring-s up the question 
in regard to marking- what is right or what is wrong, and also 
the use of per cents, letters or other means of indicating the 
worth of answers. Another question arises here, namely, if 
the answer is incorrect shall we allow anything for right 
methods of operation? In all problems accuracy is the first 
test of an answer. Answers are either right or wrong. The 
simple oral work cannot justly be marked upon any other 
basis. Later in the life of pupils it may be that the processes 
should be given some consideration, but the business demand 
for a correct answer is a criterion always to be kept in mind 
by the teacher. The use of letters or figures is a matter for 
individual decision. See 472. 

382. The nature of the problems.— In speaking of the various 
kinds of elementary work we have insisted that the material 
should be adapted to the capacities of the pupils as well as to 
the needs of the course of study. These same principles apply 
in tfce primary arithmetic. Use problems that are adapted to 
the actual experience of the child. Such problems are the ones 
that produce interest at the same time that they give the re- 
quisite drill in the work. It is advisable to use problems that 
are related to the common forms of industry and other forms of 
life, but in the first grade it is probable that the interests of 
the children will require a simple presentation of experience 
in regard to games, toys, home life, etc., more than to the in- 
dustrial phases of the community. Regarding the method of 
doing the work, both oral and written practice should be put 
into use as early as ^possible. Regarding abstract and con- 
crete examples, both kinds should be used. Accuracy may 
result from using concrete problems alone, but rapidity can 
never be acquired without frequent drill on abstract numbers. 
Much of the work should, of course, be concrete, but as soon 
as the children are able to perform abstract number operations 
a part of the daily drill should be devoted to rapid computa- 
tion in abstract w^ork. A few minutes each day through all 



ARITHMETIC 231 

the grades should be set aside for oral computation. It is 
sugg-ested that in the written work a time limit be set so that 
each child may be judg-ed according- to his recitation. It is 
not expected that all pupils will be able to solve the same num- 
ber of problems in the limited time. 

383. Addition. — ^This is another application of counting-. 
Some writers speak of addition as a synthesis of the elements 
of knowledg-e g-ained in the. first number concepts. But addi- 
tion is so closely related to the first work in counting- that it 
is not necessary to try set limits between the two kinds of 
mental operations. Counting- by I's is addition; and surely 
the counting- by 2's, 3's, etc. is giving- results in addition, 
whether called so or not. 

The first addition tables are the combinations of numbers of 
one order with 1 and 2 : 

123456789 23456789 
111111111 22222222 



sums found by counting- objects; the value of each number and 
of each combination, as 3 and 2 are 5, 2 and 3 are 5, should 
be recognized at sight without counting ; the combinations 
memorized. 

A continuation of the drill in addition gives forty-five com- 
binations of digits, taking two figures in each combination. 
The two sets just given and the following sets show the forty- 
five combinations. 



232 METHODS IN EDUCATION 



3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 




4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 




4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 






5 


6 


7 


8 


9 






5 


5 


5 


5 


5 








6: 


7 


8 


9 








6 


6 


6 


6 










7 
7 


8 

7 

8 
8- 


9 

7 

9 

8 

9 
9 



As soon as the sum of two numbers involves the process of 
* 'carrying-," tv^o fundamental facts must be taught: 

1. Ten U7iits make one ten. 

2. Place gives value to a figure. 

The practice in counting by lO's is a preparation for both 
these facts, and the drill on addition giving sums from 10 to 
20 will impress the truth. 

Decomposition. When the sum is '20 or more, it may be 
necessary to show units and tens by decomposition, thus: 

1. 



16+5=? 




16::=1 ten+6 units 




:^10 units + 6 units 




Then 10 units 




+6 units 


16 


+5 units 


+5 



21 units 21 ans. 



ARITHMETIC 



233 



2. 24 + 13 = ? 

24=2 tens+4 units 
13=1 ten +3 units. 

Then 20 units 
+ 4 units 
+ 10 units 
+ 3 units 



37 units. 



24 
13 



37 ans. 



3. 87 + 36 = ? 

Now we meet the fact that ten tens make one 
hundred. 



hundreds 


tens 
8 


units 

7 




3 


6 




11 


13 


1 


2 

87 
+ 36 


3 




123 ans. 



This last form of the work is preferred since so much column 
addition is required in life. The psycholog-ical habit of verti- 
cal addition is, therefore, more important than the habit of 
horizontal addition. Both are combined for proof in the g-ram- 
mar grades. The proof of addition in the primary grades is 
made by reversing the order of adding. If the first process 
was from the bottom to the top, then for proof begin at the top 
and add down. 

Equation. The horizontal form of expressing an example in 
addition gives an equation, thus : 

32+19=51 



234 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

The expression of equality in mathematics is an equation. 
The part before the sig-n of equality is the first member; the 
part after the sigrn of equality is the second member. 

Laws or principles of addition. 

1. Only like numbers can be added. 

2. The sum is the same in kind as the addends. 

3. If the like orders of units be added separately, 

the sum is the sum of all the numbers added, 
since the whole is equal to the sum of all its 
parts. 

4. If the sum of the units of any order contain units 

of a higher order, these hig-her units must be 
combined with units of like order. 

384. Subtraction. — As addition is considered synthesis in 
counting-, subtraction is analysis in counting. Addition and 
subtraction may be taught together, using subtraction as the 
inverse of addition. Sticks, pencils and other concrete de- 
vices are used as material, and the child measures the differ- 
ence in the groups by counting. Considerable facility in 
rapid subtraction should be secured in the easy combinations 
before introducing the necessity of "borrowing." Decomposi- 
tion will be used again to explain the relations of units, tens 
and hundreds in subtraction. It is only one step from the 
known process in addition. 

1. Decomposition to explain borrowing. 

35-18=? 

35=3 tens+ 5 units=30+ 5 = 35 

=2 tens + 15 units=20+15=35 

18=1 ten + 8 units=10+ 8 = 18 



1 ten + 7 units=10+ 7=17 



35 
■18 

17 ans. 



ARITHMETIC 235 

2. Equal additions to explain borrowing-. A few 
years ag-o the method of equal additions was 
widely used among- the disciples of Pesta- 
lozzian number. It is not used much today, 
althoug-h the axiom still holds, namely: If 
equal numbers be added to unequal numbers, 
the difference between the unequal numbers 
remains unchang-ed. 

35-18= ? Or _^g 



35 + 10 = 3 tens + 15 units=30 + 15 = 45 
18+10=2 tens+ 8 units=20+ 8=28 

1 ten + 7 units = 10+ 7=17 
35 
-18 



35—18=17 ans. Or 17 ans. 

This operation has combined the use of decom- 
position with equal additions to make the 
number of units in the minuend greater than 
the number of units in the subtrahend. 
3. Complementary addition in subtraction. This 
method is an application of addition, thus : 
764 
-478 



286 ans. 
Instead of saying- 8 from 14, we observe that 6 
added to 8 will make 14, and the process be- 
comes 8+6=14, 8+8 = 16, 5+2=7. This method 
is mentioned by Smith in the next paragraph. 
4. Four ways of performing subtraction. 

In subtracting 297 from 546, we have the 546 
two old plans, both dating from the time 297 

of the earliest printed text-boooks, at 

least. The calculation is substantially 249 
this : 



236 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(1) 7 from 16, 9; 9 from 13, 4 ; 2 from 4, 2; or 

(2) 7 from 16, 9 ; 10 from 14, 4 ; 3 from 5, 2. 
But we have also a more recent plan : 

(3) 7 and 9, 16 ; 10 and 4, 14 ; 3 and 2, 5. 
To this might be added a fourth plan, 

which has some advocates : 

(4) 7 from 10, 3 ; 3 and 6, 9 ; 9 from 10, 1 ; 

1 and 3, 4 ; 2 from 4, 2. 
All four of these plans are easily explained, the 
first rather more easily than the others. But 
the third has the g-reat advantage of using 
only the addition table in both addition and 
subtraction, and of saving much time in the 
operation. It is the so-called ''Austrian 
method" of subtraction. The fourth plan, 
while a very old one and possessed of some 
good features, is so ill adapted to practical 
work as to have no place in the school. It is 
hardly necessary to say that the old expres- 
sions "borrow" and "carry" in subtrac- 
tion and addition are rapidly going out of use; 
they were necessary in the old days of arbi- 
trary rules, but they have no advocates of any 
prominence to-day. — Smith, p. 121. 
Principles of subtraction. 

1. Only like numbers can be subtracted. 

2. If the units of each order in the subtrahend be 

taken separately from the units of like order in 
the minuend, the sum of the differences equals 
the entire difference of the given numbers. 
Axiom : The whole equals the sum of all its 
parts. 

3. If both minuend and subtrahend be equally in- 

creased the difference will not be changed. 
Proof of subtraction. Add difference and subtrahend ; or 
subtract difference from minuend to get subtrahend ; or cast 
out 9's. See 410. 



ARITHMETIC 237 

385. Multiplication.— This process is treated as synthesis in 
taking- one number a certain number of times. Multiplication 
is a short form of addition, and this close relation of the two 
processes is mentioned in 364. 

1. For jSrst steps, arrange and count concrete ob- 

jects as in addition and subtraction. 

2. Use decomposition ag-ain to explain multiplica- 

tion by one figure. 

28 
X3 

28=20+8 
20 X 3=60 
8X 3 = 24 



28X 3=84 



3. Decomposition to explain multiplication by two 
figures. 

67 

X23 

67 X 3= 201 
67X20=1340 



67X23=1541 



4. Another form for 3. 

67 Multiplying by 3 units we have 201 

X23 units ; multiplying by 20 units we 
"^ have 1340 units. The sum of these 
1340 partial products is 1541 units. 

1541 

Since 1340 units = 134 tens, we omit the cipher, 
and write 134 as tens. This shorter process 
gives the final form. 



238 METHODS IN EDUCATION 





thousands hundreds 

2 
1 3 


tens 
6 

X2 


units 

7 
3 





4 


1 


5. 


1 5 

Multiplication by fact 

3546 
X24 


4 
ors. 


1 




3546 
X6 






21276 
X4 





85104 

Variety is one advantage, a means of proof is 
another, and a practice in analysis of num- 
bers is a third. 

6. Multiplication tables. Learning- these tables 
by the memory process alone is condemned. 
All the work in counting- by I's, 2's, 3's, etc., 
is a preliminary preparation. The combina- 
tions in the four operations are another aid; 
and then the use of acquired knowledg-e in 
measuring- with foot-rule, yard-stick, toy 
money, pints, quarts, etc., — all help the pupils 
to construct the tables out of personal experi- 
ence in counting- and measuring-. 

The order of learning- the tables is not that of the old books. 
An easy order is as follows: lO's, 2's, 5's, 4's, 8's, 3's,6's, 9's, 
7's. This order starts with lO's as the easiest; then the 2's 
are not difficult; the 5's easily unite with the lO's and the 2's; 



r ARITHMETIC 239 

SO, too, the 4's and the 8's, and then 3's, 6's and 9's. The 7's 
are not closely related with any other table; but by leaving- 
the 7's till the last, all the combinations in the 7's are then 
covered by the other tables. Other opinions favor a different 
order of procedure, but McMurry upholds this one. 

Principles of multiplication. When either factor contains 
more than one figure, the principles are as follows : 

1. The product is the same, whichever factor is used 

as multiplier, 

2. If one factor be units of the first order, the pro- 

duct will be the same in kind as the other 
factor. 

3. If units of each order in the multiplicand be taken 

separately as many times as there are units in 
the multiplier, the sum of the products equals 
the entire product of the g-iven numbers. 

Proof of multiplication. Divide product by multiplier to get 
multiplicand; or invert order of factors and multiply; or cast 
out 9's. See 410. 

386. Division. — An analytic process, the inverse of multipli- 
cation, and a short form of subtraction. Early work is concrete, 
and the first notions of division are gained through the medium 
of the common fractions i, i and i in the first grade. 

1. Short division is only the inverse of the combina- 

tions in multiplication. 

2. Long- division by decomposition. 

684--2i= ? 

600-^2= 300 

80-i-2= 40 

4-4-2= 2 



684-^2=342 ans. 



240 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Other forms. 

342 
2)684(342 2)684 

6 6 



4 4 

4 4 



3. A more difficult example. 

2)674(337 We say 674r=6 hundreds, 7 

6 tens, 4 units. 6 hundreds -v-2-— 3 

Z~ hundreds. Bring- down 7 tens; 

, 7 tens -^2=3 tens and 1 ten re- 
o 
maining-. 1 ten and 4 units =14 

14 units; 14 units ^2=7 units. The 

14 quotient is 3 hundreds, 3 tens, 7 

T" units, or 337. 

4. Division by factors. 

3864^-24=:? 
4 )3864 
6 )966 
161 ans. 

5. Laws or principles of division. 

(1) Dividing- a number by one of its factors gives 
the other factor. 

(2) When the divisor is an abstract number, the 
quotient and the dividend are like numbers. 

(3) When the dividend and the divisor are like 
numbers, the quotient is abstract. 

(4) To prove division, multiply quotient and di- 
visor to reproduce dividend. 



ARITHMETIC 241 

387. Grube method : characteristics, advantages. — The leading- 
characteristic of this method is that it tries to teach the four 
fundamental processes with each number before the next num- 
ber is taken up. It is an application of the old idea of teach- 
ing- in "concentric circles. " Advantages claimed: simplicity 
and thoroughness. 

388. Objections to the Grube method. 

1. A unit not a fixed thing-. The natural begin- 

ning- of number is a whole — needing- measure- 
ment, while Grube says that one thing is the 
natural beg-inning. 

2. Different processes are not equally difficult. 

3. Free range among higher numbers excluded. 

4. Synthetic only ; memory drill. 

These four objections are from McLellan and 
Dewey. The following are from Smith, p. 91 : 

1. It carries objective illustration to an extreme, 

studying numbers by the aid of objects for 
three years, until 100 is reached. 

2. It attempts to master each number before taking 

up the next, as if it were a matter of import- 
ance to know the factors of 51 before the child 
knows anything of 75, or as if it were possible 
to keep children studing 4 when the majority 
know something of 8 before they enter school. 

3. It attempts to treat the four processes simul- 

taneously, as if they were of equal import- 
ance or of equal difficulty, which they are not. 

389. Speer method.— This is an attempt to teach concretely 
that ratio is number. Judgments of relative magnitude are 
secured by using the type forms— cubes, prisms, etc.— in get- 
ting the concept of number. Criticism. Not a direct use of 
materials in daily life ; from complex to simple. 

390. Spiral method.— The old arithmetics sought to master 
every topic, such as least common multiple, before proceeding 

17 



242 



METHODS IN EDUCATION 



to the next topic. It was impossible. The extreme reaction 
produced the spiral method of treating- several topics in each 
chapter or lesson. 

"It consists in taking- the class around a circle, say with 
the topics of common fractions, decimal fractions, g-reatest 
common divisor, and square root : then swing-ing- around ag^ain 
on a broader spiral, taking- the same topics, but with more 
difficult problems; then ag-ain, and so on until the subjects 
are sufficiently mastered." — Smith, p. 119. 

Query : How many topics can be profitably treated together? 

391. Graphic methods. — Graphic methods include all object- 
ive ways of aiding- visualization, such as writing-, drawing-, 
pictures, cubes, etc. Teclinically, a graph is a line repre- 
senting- variations of temperature, price, population, class 
standing-s, etc. 

Illustration. Add Yz and >^. 



11111 

6 6 6 6 6 



1-1 

2^3" 6 



3 + 2 _5 
""6 



392. Multiples. — A multiple of a number exactly contains 
that number. A common multiple of two or more numbers 
exactly contains each of the numbers. The least common 
multiple of two or more numbers is the least number that 
exactly contains each of the numbers. 



ARITHMETIC 243 

1. The process of finding a multiple is simplified 

by finding- the prime factors of each number 
and then multiplying those factors. The least 
common multiple is the product of the prime 
factors, each taken the greatest number of 
times it is found in any one of the numbers. 

2. Factoring by inspection. This process follows 

easily as a result of knowing the combinations. 

Find 1. c. m. of 20, 30 and 70. 

20=2X2X5 
30--2X3X5 
70=2X5X7 

The factors common to all the numbers are 2 and 
5. The factors not common to some of the 
numbers are 2, 3 and 7. Hence, according to 
the rule in 1, 1. c. m. =2X5X2X3X7=420. 

3. Second process. Actual division. Find 1. c. m. 

of 15, 60 and 75. 



5 


15 


60 


75 


3 


3 


12 


15 


2 


1 


4 


5 






2 


5 



Hence, 1. c. m. =5X3X2X2X5=300. 

Third process. Numbers not easily factored by 

inspection. Find 1. c. m. of 849 and 1132. 
(a) Find greatest common divisor. 

849)1132(1 
849 



283)849(3 
849 



244 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(b) Find other factors. 

283 849 1132 



3 4 

(c) 283X3X4=3396 1. c. m. 

393. Divisors. — This topic is logically arranged before 
multiples in text-books. 

A divisor is a number that exactly divides another number. 

The greatest common divisor is the largest exact divisor of 
two or more numbers. 

A prime factor is a divisor having no other factors than it- 
self and one. 

Laws relating to greatest common divisor. 

1. A divisor of a number is a divisor of any num- 

ber of times that number. 

2. A divisor of any two numbers is a divisor of 

their sum and also of their difference. 

(1 ) The g. c. d. of two or more numbers is the 

product of all their cominon prime factors. 
Found, in first case, by inspection. 
What is g. c. d. of 42, 56 and 70 ? 

42=2X3X7 

56=2X2X2X7 

70=2X5X7 

Here we see that 2 and 7 are the only prime 
factors common to the three numbers. Hence, 
2x7=14 g. c. d. 

(2) Second process is by division to find prime 
factors. 

Find g. c. d. of 105, 35, 70. 



5 


105 


35 


70 


7 


21 


7 


14 




3 


1 


2 



ARITHMETIC 245 

The common factors are 5 and 7 ; not common, 3 
and 2. Hence, 5x7~35 g. c. d. 

(3) Third process is by long- division when the 
numbers are not readily factored. This process 
involves the lav^s stated for g". c. d. 

Find g-. c. d. of 42 and 138. 

42)138(3 
126 

12)42(3 
36 

6)12(2 
12 

We need to give analysis of this process to show 
that 6 is g-. c. d. 

It is evident that 42 is the greatest divisor of 
itself; if it is an exact divisor of 138, 42 is 
g. c. d. Trial shows that 42 is not an exact 
divisor of 138. The remainder is 12. By 
axiom any divisor of 42 is a divisor of 3 times 
42 or 126 ; and a divisor of 126 and 138 is a 
divisor of their difference 12. Hence g. c. d. 
is not greater than 12. Now any divisor of 12 
and 42 is a divisor of 138 which is the sum of 
12 and 3X42. Thus the problem is to find g. 
c. d. of 12 and 42. 

A similar reasoning brings us to 6 and 12. But 6 
is divisor of 12; hence, 6 is g. c. d. 

394. Common fractions. Familiarity with common fractions 
is a natural result of the gradual introduction of this work. 
Fractional parts are introduced during the first year in arith- 
metic, and then the passing from the known )4, ^, X» etc., to 
the related unknown in larger fractions is going from the 
simple to the complex. Addition, subtraction and division of 



246 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

fractions is best explained by reducing- to common denomina- 
tors. The method of common denominators may not be the 
usual one in division of fractions but it is a logical step since 
the children become familiar with the meaning- of common 
denominators in addition and subtraction. It may be need- 
less repetition to say that all of the introductory practice in 
common fractions should be based upon the use of objects with 
which the children are familiar. 

There are two conceptions of fractions, which a teacher 
should keep in mind : A fraction is one or more of the equal 
parts of a unit ; a fraction is simply an indicated operation in 
division. 

The concept of half of a familiar object is not difficult. An 
easy approach is indicated in the course of study. "Halves 
and fourths, thirds and sixths of single objects ; paper folded 
into two equal parts; into four equal parts, into three equal 
parts, and into six equal parts; objects cut into two, into four, 
into three, and into six equal parts and one or more of them 
named. The same should be illustrated by drawings. ' ' Then 
pupils have the three ways of bringing their ideas into one 
clear concept: objects divided into parts; the words half, 
fourth, etc, written; the forms \, \, \, |, etc. 

There are three principles to be made clear in fractions. 
The teacher observes them at all times but pupils may know 
many of the processes before the rules are comprehended. 
These are the principles : 

1. Multiplying or dividing both numerator and de- 

nominator of a fraction by the same number 
does not change the value of the fraction. 

2. Multiplying the numerator or dividing the de- 

nominator of a fraction by a number multiplies 
the fraction by that number. 

3. Dividing the numerator or multiplying the de- 

nominator of a fraction by a number divides 
the fraction by that number. 



ARITHMETIC 247 

FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES. 

Changing- to equivalent fractions. This depends 
upon the multiplying mentioned in the first 
principle. The approach is made during the 
first steps in halves, fourths, sixths, etc., by 
noting equivalents, thus : 



1—2. 
3 — 6 

2.— A 
3 — 6 



Then follow simple exercises which prepare for 
succeeding processes. 

i— _ 2.— _ _ 

3—6 1 — 14 

2.— 3.— 

5—10 7 — 28 

6"— T2" f — ¥0" 

Change ^ to eighths, | to ninths, | to twelfths, -| 
to eighteenths. 

2. Reduction to lowest terms. Apply division of 

terms in principle one to |, |, j\, ^\, |, if, i|. 

3. Changing to whole or mixed numbers; as, f, |, 

8. 1_2 _2_4 

4. Addition. Recall that only like numbers can be 

added. 2 bu. +8 bu.=10 bu. To add | and |, 
change so that pupils will see 4 eights + 6 
eights=10 eights. Thus |+f =V-. Addition 
is well presented in most of the text-books. 
For further exercises, consult any approved 
text. 

5. Subtraction. No new operations or principles 

here. Apply common denominator again. 

6. Multiplication. This operation appears easy. 

Take multiplication of fraction by whole num- 
ber first. Proceed as follows: 



248 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

$7X5=$3S. 
7 dollars X 5=35 dollars, 
7 tenths X 8=56 tenths. 
j\X8= 56 

tenths 

"Let us illustrate by teaching the multiplication 
of a fraction by an integ-er. Preparation con- 
sists of making- sure that the learner has in 
mind the knowledge thru which the discovery 
of the general principle is to be made. What 
does ys denote? What does the denominator 
denote? What does the numerator denote? 
Presentation consists in selecting an example 
and in finding a method of performing the 
operation. This may be done objectively or 
abstractly. We will choose the former. Let 
us take y&X2. We will draw a circle, separ- 
ate it into eight equal parts, and shade three 
of them to represent ^. Multiplying ^ by 2 
we obtain six of these parts, or f . To multi- 
ply ys by 2, we multiply the numerator. Com- 
parison consists in showing that every other 
example in the multiplication of a fraction by 
an integer is exactly similar to ^X2 in all 
respects essential to the demonstration. This 
is true because multiplying the numerator of 
every fraction by an integer will multiply the 
number of equal parts that are taken without 
affecting the size of the parts. Generalization 
consists in stating the general principle. To 
multiply a fraction by an integer, multiply the 
numerator. Application consists in following 
this general principle in the solution of indi- 
vidual examples. Multiply j% by 9. ts X 9 
is an example in the multiplication of a frac- 



' • ARITHMETIC 249 

tion by an integ^er ; to multiply a fraction by 
an integ"er, multiply the numerator; to multiply 
j\ by 9, multiply the numerator." — L. H. 
Bailey, New York Training- School for Teach- 
ers, in N. E. A. Report for 1905, p. 383. 

The next work is to multiply a fraction by a 
fraction. Development may be as follows : 

$1X1=: ? 
$1X1 =$1 
$^ of f =--%i 

2Xi=$| or $i ans. 

In the second step we have used 1 as a multiplier; 
process understood from last paragraph. With 
a multiplier ^ as larg-e, the product is ^ of $| 
or $i. Using |- instead of ^ as multiplier, 
the product is twice as large ; hence, 2 times 
$f or $^. The same result may be secured 
in a shorter process by multiplying- the nu- 
merators for a new numerator and the denomi- 
nators for a new denominator. 

Continued multiplication is a larger application. 
Use cancellation to review divisors and re- 
duction to lower terms. Emphasize cancella- 
tion as a short, practical process. 

6A44A10A48 — 

FAULTY ARRANGEMENT. 

Find cost of 3i yards at $2^ a yard. 

$2i=$|XV-=$¥=$8i. 

This statement of the operation does not give 
mathematical truth. It says $2i=z$8i. Econ- 
omy of time and brevity of form are not ad- 
vantages here. Arrange the work in steps. 



250 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

3^ yards = -^3^ yards. 

$81 ans. 

7. Division. Recall the third principle and apply 
it. The first case is division of a fraction by 
a whole number. 

$18-f-3=$6 
18 dollars -7-3 = 6 dollars. 
18 twentieths -4-3=6 twentieths. 

1 8 . 1 — 6 

When the numerator is not exactly divisible, the denomi- 
nator must be multiplied by the divisor. This is one process 
that is mastered long before the reasons are understood. Take 
this : If 4 pads cost $f, what is the cost of one pad? Here the 
process must be by multiplication of denominator, and the 
answer is $^^0 or IS cents. 

To divide a fraction by a fraction. Another case of learning- 
process before understanding rule. 

7 _i. 2 — ? 

8 • 3 — • 

1-4-1=3 
iof3=| 

|of|=fi 

Required to divide | by f. Taking the unit 1 instead of |, 
we find that i is contained 3 times in 1. Then f is contained 
in 1 one-half of 3 times or |. As | is only | of 1, the true 
quotient is | of | or ^. We see that a shorter process to this 
same result is to invert the terms of the divisor and multiply. 

Another explanation of inversion of terms in division of 
fractions. 

i-2=/. 

Or, iXi=H ans. 



ARITHMETIC 2Sl 

We used 2 as the divisor instead of 5^, and the quotient is 
j^g. But the divisor 2 is 3 times too large ; hence, the quotient 
y'g is 3 times too small. Then to obtain true quotient, we must 
take 3 times yV- The same answer could be secured by the 
shorter process of inversion and multiplication. 

Another case is to divide a whole number by a fraction. 
This case is usually treated before dividing a fraction by a 
fraction. But after using inversion, we have a simple pro- 
cedure : 

7-f-|=? 

Here the use of the denominator 1 gives a case exactly like 
the last one under inversion. 

TYPE EXAMPLES IN FRACTIONS. SEE 371. 

1. To find a fractional part of a number. 

A father left % of his farm of 840 acres to his 
son. How many acres did the son receive ? 

2. To find a number when a fractional part of it 

is given. 
Robert used % of his money in paying $4 for 
books. How much money had he at first ? 

3. To find what fractional part one number is of 

another. 
Lena had eighteen cents and paid six cents for 
a pad. What part of her money did she spend? 

395. Decimal fractions. — The relation of decimal fractions to 
cominon fractions is treated under three views. The first 
opinion favors the teaching of decimal fractions as an exten- 
sion of the decimal system of United States money and the 
decimal systems of money, weights and measures in certain 
foreign countries. 

The second view makes decimal fractions the equivalents of 
certain types of common fractions. This means, then, simply 



252 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

another kind of notation, and for this reason many text-books 
treat common fractions and decimal fractions together. 

The third view considers decimal fractions very difficult for 
a child to comprehend on account of so many large denom- 
inators. For this reason the subject is treated in a separate 
chapter after common fractions have been mastered. 

We need not try to decide whether decimal fractions should 
be taught before common fractions, simultaneously with them 
or after them. The vital point is clearness in presentation; 
and a satisfactory way seems to be to unite the first two 
opinions and proceed from the known decimal scale of United 
States money and the known types in common fractions such 

^c 1 2_ _3_ _i_ _2_ 3 _1 2_ cif^ 

**■*» 10' rO' 10' 100' 100' 100' TOOO' IT^O^J '='-^' 

The decimal point. The one new feature of decimals is the 
decimal point. Pupils know numerator, denominator, terms 
of fraction, value of fraction, fractional unit and the four 
operations. The use of the decimal point need not be entirely 
new in decimals. During the third year of school pupils write 
such amounts as $2.60, $18.74 and others. They add and sub- 
tract such amounts, putting the decimal points under each 
other. They learn the name decimal point but they do not 
know the laws of decimals. An authority on this is Hand- 
book to Smith's Arithmetics, p. 33 (Ginn). The specific use 
of the decimal point in decimals is established by changing 
TO' To> TO' ^tc- ^^ equivalent decimals. The application to hun- 
dredths, thousandths and other orders will follow, of course, 
to bring out these principles : 

1. Moving the decimal point one place to the right 
increases the value tenfold; moving two places 
to the right increases the value one hundred- 
fold, etc. 

0.082 

0.82=: 10 X 0.082. 

8.2 -100X0.082. 



ARITHMETIC 253 

2. Moving- the decimal point one place to the left 

decreases the value tenfold; two places, one 
hundredfold, etc. 
0.882 

.0882 =0.882 --10 

.00882 = 0.882^100." 

3. Ciphers annexed or rejected at the right of a 

decimal do not change the value of the decimal. 

.88 = .880. 

The matter for lessons on decimals may be found in any 
good text. The scope of such lessons is indicated here to aid 
those who are preparing for examinations. 

NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 

1. Matter. Examples covering reading or interpre- 

tation; writing" decimals; reading and writing- 
mixed decimals. Do not use and in reading 
whole numbers like $125; but use and in place 
of the decimal point. $125.60=one hundred 
twenty-five dollars and sixty cents. 

2. Arrangement, 
(a) Add: 

$18.65 13.46 inches 

12.48 8.92 inches 

6.22 2.15 inches 



(b) $126.18+ $415.92+$75.86. 

(c) 74.12 ft. +18. 7 ft. + . 6 ft. 

(d) 270.40+186.90+23.04. 

(e) Read: 



TO' ToV» TOW' 


1 700 
10000 




0.6, .16, .160, 


.175, 


2.8. 


.705, .023, .003, 


7.05, 


0.23. 



6.306, 42.0094, .3678. 



254 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(f) Write in figures : 

Fifteen hundredths. 

Seven thousandths. 

One hundred eighty ten-thousandths. 

Forty-four and six hundredths. 

(g) Write in words : 

59JL __ S._ Ijr 4 6 3 

TOOO' 100' 10' TOOOO 

.0024 0.8, 7.16, 384.681. 
3. Rules. Read the decimal as an integer, and give 
it the name of its righthand order. 
To write decimals; Express the numerator in 
figures, and then place the decimal point so 
that the last righthand figure shall express the 
denomination of the decimal. 

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 

Write the numbers so that the decimal points shall be in 
the same column, and then add or subtract respectively as in 
whole numbers. 

MULTIPLICATION. 

1. Matter. Five or more examples in common frac- 

tions and decimals to satisfy inductive process. 

2. Arrangement. 



(a) 


Multiply i\ by j%\ 




To X T¥0 — tWo • 




. 3 X. 84=. 252. 


(b) 


TWO X t"o = xt^T 




.12X.75 = .0900. 


(c) 


3X0.4, 3X.04, 3X.004. 


(d) 


54.6X.30. 


(e) 


0.24X.254. 



3. Rule. Multiply as in whole numbers, and point 
off as many places in the product as there are 
decimal places in both multiplicand and 
multiplier. 



ARITHMETIC 255 

DIVISION. 

The old way is analogous to the plan used in 
multiplication, namely, from common fractions 
to equivalent decimal fractions. This shows 
the reason for the rule that the quotient con- 
tains as many decimal places as the decimal 
places in the dividend exceed the decimal 
places in the divisor. 

Austrian miethod. In division we have also an 

"Austrian method," a valuable arrangement. 

It is not long since a problem like 6.275 divided 

by 2.5 was "worked" by a rule which was 

rarely developed. Now the work is arranged 

in this way : 

2.51 



2.5)6.275 25)62.75 

50 



12.75 
12.5 



0.25 
0.25 



Such an arrangement leaves no trouble with the 
decimal point, and the work is easily explained. 
In the above problem the entire remainder is 
brought down, and the decimal point is pre- 
served throughout, as should be done until 
the process is thoroughly understood ; then the 
abridgment should appear. — Smith, p. 122. 

TYPE EXAMPLES IN DECIMALS. SEE 371. 

1. To find a decimal part of a number. The dis- 
tance from Cortland to Ithaca is 20 miles. A 
boy walks .7 of the way in one day. How far 
did he walk? 



256 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

2. To find a number when a decimal part of it is 

g^iven. 
Eug-ene earned $14 which is .7 what his father 
earned. How much did his father earn? 

3. To find what decimal part one number is of an- 

other. 
A pupil failed on three out of twelve problems on 
an examination. What decimal part of the 
whole test was incorrect? 

4. To find a number when the number plus a de- 

cimal part is <f iven. 
The sixth g-rade had an attendance of 48, which 
was .20 larger than the fifth grade attendance. 
How many pupils in the fifth g-rade? 

5. To find a number when the number minus a 

decimal part is g-iven. 
Use smaller for larg-er in problem 4. 

396. Denominate numbers. — This part of arithmetic has been 
mentioned several times in illustrating- the application of con- 
crete or objective methods of teaching-. All the tables now 
used are taught by measuring- and counting-. This is one ap- 
plication of the maxim, "Turn to use." Toy money in actual 
problems makes the way to the table of United States money ; 
f imiliar us 3 of the foot-rule and yard-stick leads to the table of 

linear measure; the measurement of desks, boards, floor and 
walls shows a need for square measure; one more dimension 
in the schoolroom, in boxes, bins, crates, cellars, etc., intro- 
duces cubic measure. Likewise in dry measure, liquid 
measure and avoirdupois weig-ht. The inference is that the 
tables should be built, constructed or made according- to actual 
uses instead of being- memorized first and then applied. It is 
the inductive method instead of the deductive method. 

397. Percentage. — Percentag-e is a direct outg-rowth of the 
use of common fractions and decimal fractions. When we 
come to speak of the different methods of presenting the work 



ARITHMETIC 257 

in percentag-e, fractions sug-gest two of the methods, namely: 
what is called the fractional method or that of common frac- 
tions, and the decimal method or that of decimal fractions. A 
third method is the algebraic method commonly known as the 
equation. The use of the old formulas for base, rate, per- 
centage, amount and difference is no longer sanctioned. 

METHOD OF COMMON FRACTIONS. 

This method is a favorite one because (a) it uses the knowl- 
edge of common fractions ; ( b) cancellation is employed as a 
short, useful, pleasant process ; and (c) there is little to dis- 
tract the child's attention under such a direct process. 

This use of fractions may be arranged according to diffi- 
culties. 

(a) Fractions that cannot be reduced to lower terms ; 

tIo» T¥o» xto' TcPo' tVo« 

(b) Fractions that can be reduced to lower terms ; as 

8 13 JL8„ _4_6_ 

100' 100' 100' 100* 

(c) Complex fractions ; as, 

32. 5i 71 3 7 

To%» T¥o» T^' tM' a caution should be ob- 
served against the use of large numbers in 
complex fractions. Such fractions are useless 
if they go beyond the demands of ordinary 
business life. 

(d) Aliquot parts ; as ^^"'B'' xit^i' ^ chart show- 

ing the equivalent aliquot parts should hang 
in every classroom. 

"^2^=^ = 12^%= .125 

To ^ 2 ^ 

^^0=1=25 %^ .25 
37|= 3^371% =.375 
-^=^--=50 %^.S0 
62|=5^62i%=.625 
A^^=f=75 %= .75 



?2i=|-87i%=.875 



18 



258 METHODS IN EDUCATION 



M=i3.16|%= .161 



33i. 



661-8. 



:66f %=i .66f 
83i3.|=83i/.= .83i 

.20 
.40 

- tVo =1=60^0= .60 
tVo=I=80%= .80 

Other aliquot parts may be used and other arrang-ements on 
the chart may be preferred. The given plan emphasizes the 
g-rouping- of the aliquot parts as common fractions in their 
simplest form as g-iven in the second column. Pupils should 
memorize this chart. 

METHOD OF DECIMAL FRACTIONS. 

The table of aliquot parts may be used as a table of equiv- 
alents also. Then the applications of decimal fractions in 
percentag-e are matters of substituting- the equivalent decimal 
for the common fraction. The interpretation of the problem 
bring^s nothing new; the operation itself is the same; and 
the regular principles of decimals are adequate. 

THE EQUATION IN PERCENTAGE. 

This is a valid use of algebra to simplify relations and pro- 
cesses in arithmetic. The early w^ork in arithmetic has made 
pupils familiar with such examples as these : 

6X ?=48? 
7X ?=^63? 

11 X $?=$132? 

The next step is to see that pupils understand that per cent 
means hundredths, hundredth or of a hundredth; as 



ARITHMETIC 259 

6 per cent means 6 hundredths. 

1 per cent means 1 hundredth. 

i per cent means ^ of a hundredth. 

The third step in teaching- the equation is to impress again 
the meaning- of the symbols jfo' -O^ and 6%. The table of 
equivalents should show that all three forms mean the same. 

A fourth step is a review of the decimal method in percent- 
age. These preparatory steps are really a review of all the 
work in percentage. Then the pupils are ready for the equa- 
tion. 

6x ?:=30? 

6 times what number = 30? 

6x=30. By algebra. 



If 6 xr-30, what 

If i X — 30, what 

If i xr=30, what 

If y%x = 30, what 



is the value of x ? 
is the value of x? 
is the value of x ? 
is the value of x? 



If .5 x=30, what is the value of x? 
If 0.0Sx=30, what is the value of x? 
If 0.005x==30, what is the value of x? 

Application: 

$12 is 4% of how many dollars? 
$13 is A^(fo of now many dollars? 
20 miles is 5% of how many miles? 

Form : 

0.04 x==$12 
0.04ix=r$13 
0.05 x=20 miles. 
For problem solved, see 522. 

TYPE EXAMPLES IN PERCENTAGE. SEE 371. 

1. To find a per cent of a number. 

In a school of 1500 pupils 20% are absent during- 
a storm. How many absent? 



260 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

2. To find a number when a per cent of it is given. 
A clerk pays $6 a week for board. If this is 30% 

of his salary, find amount of salary. 

3. To find what per cent one number is of another. 
Forty-two pupils in a class of fifty are promoted. 

Find per cent promoted. 

4. To find a number when the number plus a per 

cent part is g-iven. 
A teacher receives $660, which is 10% more than 
she received last year. Find last year's salary. 

5. To find a number when the number minus a per 

cent part is g^iven. 
A teacher pays $180 for board. If this is 10% 
less than she paid last year, find cost of last 
year's board. 

398. The syllogism used. — The solution of problems employs 
the syllogism although students are not conscious of using this 
form of reasoning. Bailey discusses this topic in the N. E. A. 
Report, 1905, page 384. He calls the process of reasoning 
tradtictwn. He says: "Three statements are involved. The 
major states the relation between the required term and the 
given term ; the minor states that the given term is equivalent 
to a second term ; and the conclusion makes the same state- 
ment involving the second term which the major premise makes 
involving the first term. The conclusion is valid, because, in 
any proposition, a term may be replaced by a second term, 
provided the second term is equivalent to the first. 

Illustration. If 1 apple costs 3 cents, how much will 5 
apples cost? 

Major: "The cost of 5 apples" is 5 times "the cost of 1 

apple." 
Minor: "The cost of 1 apple" is "3 cents." 
Conclusion : The cost of 5 apples is 5 times "3 cents." 

It is customary to abbreviate the argument by the omission 
of one of the premises. In some localities, the major is omitted, 



ARITHMETIC 261 

g-iving- the form: Since the cost of 1 apple is 3 cents, the cost of 
5 apples is 5 times 3 cents;" in others, the minor is omitted, 
g-iving- the form : "Since the cost of 5 apples is 5 times the cost 
of 1 apple, the cost of 5 apples is 5 times 3 cents." 

399. Algebra used in arithmetic. — The close relation between 
arithmetic and algebra is no longer a matter of doubt. Nearly 
all the modern text-books on arithmetic have introduced the 
elements of alg-ebra. The rule and its limitations may be 
stated thus : Use algebra wherever its use will make the 
processes in arithmetic easier or clearer. 

400. Tests of divisibility. — A number is divisible : 

By 2, if it ends in 0, 2, 4, 6, 8. 

By 3, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. 

By 4, if the fiumber represented by the two digits at 

the right is divisible by four. 
By 5, if it ends in or 5. 
By 6, if divisible by 2 and by 3. 
By 8, if the number represented by the three digits 

at the right is divisible by 8. 
By 9, if the sum of its dig-its is divisible by 9. 
By 10, if it ends in 0. 
By 12, if it is divisible by 3 and by 4. 
For 7 and 11, actual division is the best test. 

401. Short processes and business methods. — Modern usag-e 
favors the introduction of short processes whenever they are of 
such a nature that the child can readily comprehend their 
practical value. For instance, in multiplying- by 10 or any 
multiple of 10 the addition of the number of ciphers found in the 
multiplier is a direct way to the product; in dividing- by 10 or 
any multiple of 10 pointing off to the left as many places as 
there are ciphers in the divisor; cancellation, factoring- by in- 
spection, the use of aliquot parts in common fractions and 
percentag-e and the contracted methods in interest and the other 
applications of percentage. Dr. Smith says that the teacher 
who fails to keep in touch with the demands and methods of 



262 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

modern business is not doing her duty toward herself or the 
class. In regard to business methods considerable discussion 
has arisen about how much commercial arithmetic should be 
introduced in the regular courses. This question brings in 
the phases of commercial discussion which cannot be treated 
fully here but suffice it to say that the text-book in use in the 
school may serve as a guide in the limitations in this matter. 

The following footnote, page 218 of Young's The Teaching 
of Mathematics, is a good presentation of the demands of busi- 
ness. 

"An excellent idea of what the business world believes it 
has the right to expect from schools is given in Still's report 
to the N. E. A. 1900, digested from six hundred replies repre- 
senting fifty-seven different occupations and lines of business. 

Mechanical Aids ; — 

1. Importance of decimal point in business. 

2. Necessity for legible figures. 

3. Accuracy and speed. 

4. Use of interest and discount tables and graded 

schedules. 

5. Use of cash registers and arithmometers. 

6. Fractions like f, yf, |^f, etc., should receive scant 

attention. 

7. Importance of "short cuts. " 

8. Value of teaching multiplication table through 

20x20. 

9. Importance of familiarity with English money. 

10. Business forms, such as checks, notes, receipts, 

statements, and price lists should be under- 
stood by all pupils of the seventh year and 
upward. 

11. Constant repetition and drill in the use of the 

four fundamental processes. 

12. Processes of Solution. (In reply to question as 

to differences between processes of school work 
and outside world.) On the whole, no great 



ARITHMETIC 263 

differences. (In interest, the only case, find 
interest and amount: facility in the four funda- 
mental processes and approximate estimates 
important.)" 

402. Simple interest. — This topic is introduced to direct at- 
tention to the terms used and to the methods used. 

TERMS. 

1. The sum of money on which interest is paid is 

the principal. 

2. The per cent of the principal paid for the use of 

the principal for one year is the rate. 

3. The money paid for the use of the principal for 

the entire time is the interest. 

4. The interest added to the principal is the amount. 

METHODS. 

1. When the time is an exact number of years and 

months, find interest for one year and multiply 
this by the number of years. 

2. Six per cent method. 

3. Exact interest is interest obtained by consider- 

ing- 365 days as one year. 

FAULTY ARRANGEMENT. 

Avoid untrue statements like the following- solution in find- 
ing the interest on $500 for four years at 6%. 

TfoX$500=$30x4--^$120. 
Arrang-e the work in two steps. 

$500XTto=$30 
$30X4=$120 ans. 

403. Ratio. — Relation in arithmetic is ratio. Instead of 
waiting- to reach this topic in the last part of arithmetic, it is 
advisable to use it all throug-h arithmetic. Every analysis 



264 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

that directs attention to comparative quantity uses ratio. 
Hence, the importance attached to unitary analysis, variable 
unit, common fractions and equations. See 405 and 406. 

404. Problems illustrating progressive order of difficulties. — See 

371 for scheme and types of examples. This section g-ives 
illustrative examples and problems that may be used to over- 
come difficulties in the order in w^hich those difficulties arise. 

SUBTRACTION. 

1. 8— S. Inverse of addition. 

2. 14—9. Inverse of addition; borrowing-. 

3. 24—9. Borrov^^ing- units. 

4. 213—38. Borrowing- units and tens. 

5. 304—126. Zero and borrowing hundreds. 

MULTIPLICATION. 

1. 297X135. No zero used. 

2. 297x130. Zero in the units column. 

3. 297x103. Zero in the tens column. 

DIVISION. 

1. 786-4-265. No zero in divisor 

2. 786-^205. Zero in tens column. 

3. 780-^250. Zero in units column. 



ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS. 
1 l_i_2ii ) 

o lie Denominators the same. 

3. i+t+i I One denominator is common denom- 

4. f-i S inator. 



5. l+i 

6. ^-i 



Miscellaneous denominators. 



7. Boug-ht 3|lbs. Ceylon tea, 2f lbs. of Japan tea and 

5f lbs. Canton tea. How many lbs. in all? 

8. A merchant bought 28^ bu. potatoes. He boug-ht 

7i bu. from A, 13f bu. from B and the re- 
mainder from C. How many bu. did C sell? 



1. 


12|- 


-5f. 


2. 


12|- 


-5|. 


3. 


12f- 


-5|. 


4. 


12f- 


-5|. 


5. 


12^1- 


-5^. 



ARITHMETIC 265 

9. Fred walked 12f miles, Luke ISy'^ mi. and Walter 
4-| miles. How far did the three boys walk? 

SUBTRACTION OF MIXED NUMBERS. 

Same denominators. 

8— common denominator. 

Same denominators; borrowing. 

Different denominators; borrowing-. 

Denominators difficult. 

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS. 

1. f of $16. Familiar operation. 

2. f Xl2. Fraction by integer. 

3. 12Xf. Integer by fraction. 

4. f X 8- Fraction by fraction. 

5. At $1 a yard, what is cost of 75 yds.? 

6. Find cost of 10 tons of coal at $6f a ton. 

7. Find cost of | can of molasses at $| a can. 

8. If land is worth $40^ an acre, what is the value 

of a farm of 12^ acres ? 

DIVISION OF FRACTIONS. 

1. f -^ 3. Numerator divided. 

2. f -r- 3. Denominator multiplied. 

3. 12^|. See last case in 394. 

4. f-f-i. 

5. 6i-^2. 

6. 6i^2i. 

7. A woman exchanged 30 lbs. of butter at $.25 per 

lb. for cloth costing $.37^ a yard. How many 
yards did she get ? 

DIVISION OF DECIMALS. 

Addition, subtraction and multiplication of decimals do not 
involve many difficulties. Following is an order for division : 



266 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

1. 638.724-^12. 

2. 63872 -^.12. 

3. 638.72 H-.012. 

4. At 5^ cents per lb. how much sug-ar can be boug-ht 

for $4.40? 

PERCENTAGE. 

See types in 371 and then consult any arithmetic. Students 
preparing- for New York City should follow the order of diffi- 
culties as outlined in 371. Those types infractions, decimals, 
etc., cover all difficulties. 

405. Unitary analysis. — This kind of analysis g-oes back to 
one common unit of measure. The fixed unit one is the basis. 

Illustration. Six books cost |9; find cost of eleven books at 
the same rate. 

$9 =cost 6 books. 

$9-i-6— $li, cost of one book. 

$HX11=$16.S0, cost of 11 books. 

The other important method of solving- problems is the equa- 
tion. 

406. Variable unit. — In contrast to the fixed unit one, we have 
the variable unit. When a convenient ratio exist between the 
two quantities in the problem, it is convenient to use that ratio 
in,stead of g"oing- back to the cost of one. 

Illustration. Six books cost $9; find cost of thirty-six books. 

$9— cost 6 books. 

Ratio of 6 books to 36 books is 6. 

Hence, $54— cost of 36 books. 

The unit of comparison happens to be 6, but it might be any 
other number. Note that this device does not apply to the 
problem in 405; there is no integ-ral ratio between 6 and 11. 

407. Series. — Grube and others have used the series of com- 
binations for abstract and concrete drill. Illustration of series 
in building number 7: 



w 



ARITHMETIC 267 

6+1=7 1+6=7 2+2+2+1=7 
5+2=7 2+5=7 3+3+1=7 
4+3=7 3+4=7 

408. Decimation.— A device for rapid drill based upon tens 
as frequently used for many years, but now some principals 

do not seem to approve it. The device is still helpful but it 
should not be abused. See 380. 

409. Decomposition. — The analysis of numbers is an essen- 
tial part of clearness in teaching- the fundamental facts of 
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The local 
value of fig-ures in the orders Miits, tens and hundreds is ex- 
plained by decomposition. See 383 to 386 inclusive. 

410. Other terms explained. 

1. Additive subtraction. The process of finding- 

what must be added to the subtrahend to pro- 
duce the minuend is the method of additive 
subtraction. Advantages are (a) use of addi- 
tion, (b) obviates use of subtraction tables, (c) 
lessens difficulties in "borrowing." See 384. 

2. Arithmetical complement. The diflFerence be- 

tween any number and the next higher power 
of 10 is the arithmetical complement of that 
number. 

3 is the complement of 7, since 7+3=10. 
32 is the complement of 68, since 68+32=100. 
135 is the complement of 865, since 865+135=1000. 
0.26 is the complement of 0.74, since 0.74+0.26=1. 

3. Association, commutation and distribution. 

These laws relate to arrangement and analysis 
of numbers. 
The law of association, applied to multiplica- 
tion, says that the use of brackets makes no 
difference in the process 
5X(6X7)=(5X6)X7=210. 



268 MKTHODS IN EDUCATION 

But the use of brackets in combined addition 
and subtraction does make a difference. 

5+6x7=47 
(5+6)x7=77. 

The law of commutation says the product is the 
same independent of the order in which the 
numbers are multiplied. 

5X6X7=7X6X5=6X7X5. 

Likewise in addition. 

5+6+7=7+6+5=6+7+5. 

The law of distribution uses analysis by a kind 
of decomposition of numbers. 
5=2+3. Then 
4X5=4X2+4X3=20. 

4. Elimination of subject-matter. The modern text- 
books are leaving- out a large number of the 
topics treated in the older books. This view 
is looking- to the practical value of what is 
learned in mathematics rather than to the dis- 
ciplinary value of the study. Following- are 
some of the subjects which are no longer con- 
sidered necessary for children to master : 
♦*1. G. C. D. or L. C. M. of large numbers other- 
wise than by factoring. 

2. Fractions with large or unusual denominators. 

3. Compound or complex fractions. 

4. All measures not actually in use in the com- 
munity at large. 

5. Reductions of decimals to common fractions 
and decimals beyond thousandths. 

6. Circulating decimals. 

7. Square root and cube root except by factoring. 

8. Profit and loss as a separate subject. 

9. True discount 



ARITHMETIC ^ 269 

10. Partial payments. 

11. Equation of payments. 

12. Partnership. 

13. Compound proportion. 

14. Compound interest. 

15. Business forms which do not conform to the 
usag-e of the day. 

16. Large numbers and exercises involving many 
numbers. 

17. The premature introduction of difficult mat- 
ter. "—Young-, page 220. 

5. Measurement and partition. "In measurement 

the divisor and dividend are of the same de- 
nomination, but in partition the divisor is ab- 
stract."— (McMurry, 199). 

18 ft. ^3 ft. =6. Measurement. 
18 ft.-T-3=6 ft. Partition. 

"The distinction betw^een division and partition 
has received far more attention than its im- 
portance warrants. No doubt there is a logical 
distinction between the questions : How many 
4S in 12? and If 12 be separated into 4 equal 
parts, how many units in each part? And be- 
tween : If 5 yards of cloth cost 75 cents, what 
is the price per yard? and At ij cents per yard 
how many yards cait be bought for 75 cents? 
But this distinction does not affect the mathe- 
matical process, nor need it be mentioned to 
the child. The essential thing for him to know 
is what the result will be (cents, yards, etc)." 
—Young, 235. 

6. Problems. "Problems include all the examples 

in arithmetic in which the operations are not 
directly stated. They are divided into simple, 
involving only one operation, and complex, in- 
volving more than one operation. 



270 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

The solution of these problems is always made 
throug-h a form of reasoning- called /rrt(^?^(r//6'/^." 
—(Bailey, p. 384, N. E. A. Report, 1905.) See 
398. 
7. Proof, verification or checking-. The proof of 
correct solution may be answers in the book, 
the teacher's decision, a second solution in the 
same way or in another way. Verification of 
a few problems is worth more than the solution 
of many additional problems without verifica- 
tion or proof. Some kinds of proof have been 
mentioned. Here we add that of casting- out 9's. 
This is useful but it fails to detect such errors 
as the addition of 9, the interchange of digits, 
and all errors not affecting the sum of the 
digits. 

CASTING OUT 9'S TO CHECK ADDITION. 

56342=9X 6260+ 2 remainder 

64723=9X 7191+ 4 remainder 

57849=9X 6427+ 6 remainder 

23454=:9X 2606+ remainder 



202368=9X22484 + 12 remainder 
=9X22484+ 9 + 3. 
=9X22485+ 3. 

The excess of 9's is 3; and the excess in the sum 
of the excesses 2, 4, 6 and 0, is 3; hence, the 
work is probably correct. 

SUBTRACTION. 

845=9X93+8 remainder. 
327=9x36+3 remainder. 



518=9X57+5 remainder. 

Remainders 5+3=8 ; subtraction probably cor- 
rect. 



ARITHMETIC 271 

MULTIPLICATION. 

842rr 9X93+ 5 remainder. 
52:= 9X 5+ 7 remainder. 

43784=9X4864 + 8 remainder. 

5x7=35 = 9X3 + 8. The excess of 9's in the pro- 
duct of the remainders or excesses is 8, the 
same as in the final product. Operation prob- 
ably correct. 

DIVISION. 

74563-428=174+^V^ 
74563=428X174+91 ■ • 
Excess of 9's in dividend =7 
Excess of 9's in divisor =5 
Excess of 9's in quotient =3 
Excess of 9's in remainder = l 
Excess of 9's in 5x3+1 =7 

Operation probably correct. 

Traduction. See 398. 



Chapter XV. Reading. 

411. Value. — Excellence in all other branches of school work 
is dependent upon ability to read well, and hence the basic 
importance of reading. But aside from its importance in the 
acquisition of knowledge in school, reading is a means of 
pleasure for ourselves and others during later life. Appre- 
ciative reading of good literature gives strength and refine- 
ment to character, and assures continued development of 
intellectual power through the use of the mental faculties. 

412. Characteristics of books recently used. 

1. Graded words and exercises without attention to 

content. 

2. Moral stories. 

3. Information readers. 

4. Patriotic selections. 

5. Literary masterpieces. 

413. Types of reading matter used at present. 

1. Nonsense rhymes, such as Mother Goose. Reasons 

in favor — play in education, pleasure, interest; 
against — content lacking. 

2. Literature of familiar things, such as toys, 

games, food, domestic animals. 

3. Stories of primitive life of the race, early civili- 

zation, < animal life, concrete heroism, Homer, 
Indian life, etc. Apply culture epoch theory. 

4. Fairy stories. Imagination sees the good and 

the beautiful. Should stories be condemned 
because the true is lacking? No. 

5. Fables. Literary inheritance. 

6. Myths. The story in education. 

7. Bible stories. 

8. Poetry. 



READING 273 

9. Geographical readers and other forms of liter- 
ature. 

414. Principles determining the selection of reading matter. — The 

twofold relations of the individual and the community are fac- 
tors for constant consideration. The mental requirements of 
the individual must be satisfied; the sociological or community- 
interests must not be neglected. Hence, the tvvro determining 
principles in the selection of reading matter are the psycho- 
logical and the sociological needs. Such needs require 

1. Material simple in thought and form. 

2. Familiar v^ords. 

3. Suitable content. 

4. Adaptability to individuals. 

415. Analytic methods of teaching primary reading: word, sen- 
tence.— The word method in reading teaches a large number 
of words as wholes by associating the words with familiar 
things. The words are recognized at sight without knowing 
the spelling. Pupils have ideas when they enter school; they 
know many objects; they use many words; and so this method 
aims to teach pupils to rec~>gnize the words which are used in 
familiar language. 

The advantages claimed : 

1. The word is mastered by the eye. 

2. It is from the known to the related unknown, as 

children can talk words when they enter school, 
and now they learn that the word is a picture 
and also a sign of some objective thing. 

3. Alphabet, spelling and syllables are learned in- 

cidentally. 

4. It is natural because languages are developed 

one word at a time, the word being the unit of 
language. 
Disadvantages of the word method : 

1. Mastery by the eye alone is not a pedagogical 
advantage; multiple sense instruction is better. 

19 



274 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

2. Habit of guessing-. 

3. Incomplete without phonics, spelling, and writ- 

ing sentences. ^ 

4. Considering the sentence as the unit of expres- 

sion, the word method violates the principle 
from the %vhole to its parts. 
The sentence method begins with sentences and later works 
down to words and letters. 
Advantages : 

1. The sentence is the unit of our language, since 

every complete thought must have a sentence 
for its expression. 

2. Interest, apperception and self-activity used in 

constructing and interpreting sentences. 
Disadvantages of the sentence method : 

1. Incomplete without the study of words, letters 

and phonics. 

2. Not suited to simultaneous teaching where dull 

pupils are present. 

416. Synthetic methods: alphabet, phonic. — The alphabet 
method teaches the letters first. Sooner or later the letters 
must be learned as they are instruments of knowledge in the 
child's mental equipment. It is, then, an advantage to learn 
them as soon as possible. But usage does not favor this method 
because (a) it violates the principle of going from wholes to 
parts; (b) it is neither the interesting nor the natural way of 
learning a language. 

The phonic method, or the learning of the sounds of the let- 
ters, should not be used first. Reasons: the two given against 
alphabet method and also the fact that some letters have too 
inany sounds and some letters are silent. As a supplementary 
aid, the values of phonic training are (1) distinct articulation; 
(2) pure tone; (3) the power to read new words and pronounce 
them correctly. 



READING 275 

417. Combination method. — A liberal view of teaching prim- 
ary reading includes the best features of the four methods 
mentioned. Analysis and synthesis are needed for every com- 
plete educational process, and enough of each can be chosen 
from the combined advantages of the four methods. Then add 
writing to co-ordinate the motor activity with the other senses; 
and, finally, dramatic expression as amcnsof interpretation 
through the aid of action. 

DRAMATIZATION. 

The value of dramatic expression is a modern contribution 
to primary reading. It need not be limited to primary reading, 
however, nor should it be. We have frequently emphasized 
the worth of oral expression in recitations, declamations, 
discussions and debates. Here we add one more suggestion 
in regard to using the dramatic instinct of children in all 
grades as a means of individual and social interpretation, 
expression and impression. 

In the N. E. A. Report for 1907, p. 485, there is a short 
article on Dramatizing by T. C. Blaisdell, Professor of Eng- 
lish Literature, State College, Lansing, Michigan. We quote 
three paragraphs and some of his suggestions. 

"But why should not dramatizing be a potent factor in 
education? Children have an imagination far more vivid than 
have youths or adults. Left to themselves, unhampered by 
teachers and curriculum, children unconsciously become actors 
of power and dramatists of real human interest. 

To illustrate : A few days ago I attended the out-of-door 
flag-day celebration of a two-room rural school. The program 
had been left to a committee of five girls. They had of course 
the conventional recitations and songs, a violin solo, choruses, 
etc. 

But finally came an announcement that caused an expectant 
rustle among the fifty or sixty children and the few visitors 
sitting on the sloping hillside. Charades were announced, 
and we were to "guess." They were not charades, however ; 



276 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

they were effective little dramas, conceived entirely by the 
g-irls, witnout rehearsals, and so far as I could learn, w^ith- 
out any schoolroom experience in dramatizing-. The Betsy 
Ross home during- the making- of the first flag- was shown, the 
conversation between General Washington and his aides, and 
the famous flag- maker, being- given with a vividness that 
caused silence even among- the boj^s of the somewhat restless 
audience. But the chief work of art was yet to come. Our 
young- friend Malcolm was seen mounting- his pony. He and 
his pony are a unit. And when he came crashing- thru the 
trees and in front of the audience crying "The British are 
coming ! Be ready! Be ready !" he brought his audience to 
their feet. They cried out in their excitement, "Paul Revere! 
Paul Revere !" The dramatizing was done with vigor, and 
was received with a delight that does not pass. Will not 
Malcolm read of the famous ride of Paul Revere with a new 
power when next that poem is called for in the reading-class? 
And will not every boy and girl who saw the little play, have 
a deeper understanding of the real meaning of the original 
ride and read of it with added joy and with more dramatic 
skill?" 

Suggestions in favor of dramatizing. 

1. Children are eager to interpret life ; hence, the 

desire to play stories, poems, songs, and home 
or vacation incidents. 

2. Visualization. Pupils comprehend better after 

seeing ; they become better readers and better 
appreciators of literature. 

3. Overcomes self-consciousness. The enthusiasm 

is a powerful social stimulus. 

4. Clearer images formed. Better talking and 

writing. 

5. Strengthens the speaking voice, gives ease of 

bodily carriage, increases desire for knowl- 
edge, brings teacher and pupils into closer 



READING 277 

relations, and exalts the function of pleasure 
as a factor in education. 

6. For reference, see Sara Cone Bryant's How to 
Tell Stories to Children ; also, the books cited 
in 418. 

418. McCloskey method.— This method of teaching- reading- 
combines the advantages of the four methods discussed in the 
preceding- sections and also correlates reading- and languag-e. 
Special emphasis is placed upon the content of the reading- 
matter. Some of the leading- features are summarized. 

1. The choice of matter that appeals directly to the 

interests of the pupils. Live objects are 
selected, such as, the story of the Kid, from 
the Jewish Talmud ; The Ox; The Little Red 
Hen ; The Little Pine Tree ; The Little Boy 
Blue. 

2. The vivid telling- of stories by the teacher. The 

oral treatment of the story is the first step in 
the teaching-. The story is told three times : 
first, to g-ive an idea of the whole ; second, to 
g-ive the children a chance to fix the essentials 
in their right order ; third, a rapid telling to 
bring all the parts together again. For sug- 
gestions for oral work with stories, see De- 
Garmo's "Essentials of Method", pages 94- 
107; McMurry's "Method of the Recitation", 
pages 26-29; McMurry's "Special Method in 
Primary Reading", pages 1-46. 

3. The use of script forms in introducing the thought 

expressed in a sentence. This process com- 
bines the sentence method and the word 
method. 

4. The transition from script to print. This puts 

the child into the use of text-book or printed 



278 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

sheets early in his school career. It gives 
him a chance to begin to help himself. 

5. Oral language lessons based upon the written 

and printed sentences already treated. A re- 
production of the material already covered 
gives the teacher an opportunity to make use 
of the dramatic instinct in the children. This 
dramatic rendering of the little stories is not 
strictly a part of the McCloskey method but it 
is used successfully by a large number of 
teachers who are using the other points of 
advantage in the McCloskey method. The 
written language work follows closely after 
the jBrst oral language work and absolute 
accuracy in getting capitalization and punc- 
tuation is required from every pupil. The 
progress in the line of structural composition 
is one of the marvelous results of this method 
of teaching. 

6. Introduction of phonic lessons. After fifty or 

sixty words are thoroughly known at sight, 
the pupils are able to grasp the words as 
wholes and then the work in phonic analysis 
is introduced. The method of phonograms 
and blending is used. 

7. The letters of the alphabet learned and used. 

This summary of features shows that the 
McCloskey method does use the sentence 
method, the word method, the phonic method 
and the alphabet method but they are used in 
the reverse order from that advocated in some 
schools. The principle from the whole to the 
parts is rigidly observed in this method. 

419. Rational or Ward method. — This method is a combina- 
tion of the word method and the phonic method. Later the 



READING 279 

other two methods are utilized in the reading- lesson. The aim 
of the Ward method of teaching- reading- is to make the child 
independent. The phonic drill during the first two years of 
the work aims to give the child a key to the language so that 
he will be able to help himself in all the work in reading after 
the second and third years. 

The oral work in the Ward method is divided into three dis- 
tinct lines of drill. 

1. Sight reading from the blackboard. 

2. Drill on phonograms. 

3. Drill on blend. 

In the first half year of school the children are taught to 
read eighty-two words by sight reading and in every instance 
the teacher must see that the children understand what they 
are reading. In teaching a word the actual process of teach- 
ing is not done until after the children have been tested to see 
that they have the general thought conveyed by that word. 
These words are used in sentences from the very beginning 
and are frequently drilled upon in conversation or story. 
Along with this sight reading there is much drill upon phono- 
grams and the blend. 

The leading features of this system are the following: 

1. The presentation of phonograms in a rational 

order. A phonogram is a written or printed 
representation of a sound; as, f, 1, m, n, r, ing, 
ings, ight, ights. A word phonogram is a 
sight word used as a phonogram; as, ail, at, 
old. 

2. The teaching of an initial stock of phonograms 

before any phonetic reading is done. 

3. Thorough training in phonetic blending before 

any reading is done. This training aims to 
prepare the sense of hearing for quick, ac- 
curate perception. 



280 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. Gradual introduction of phonetic words into the 
sentences used in the reading lessons. A sight 
word is a word that has been taught as a whole. 
Such words are recognized by the sight alone. 
A phonetic word is a word that the children 
are to read by means of combining the phono- 
grams. The blend or blending is the union of 
simple or combined sounds into words. 

420. Guiding principle today.— The one great principle that 
determines correct methods of teaching reading is from the 
whole to its parts. This principle is applied all through the 
elementary grades. 

421. Suggestions for beginners.— Suggestions 1 and 2 are 
from Course of Study. 

1. "Sounds of letters. While the word or other 

sight method is being employed for teaching 
the reading of sentences, daily lessons should 
be given on the sounds of single letters and 
combinations of letters. These exercises should 
be used as a drill in articulation and as a prep- 
aration for reading. The first sounds taught 
should be such as are (1) easily made, (2) easily 
prolonged without alteration in character, and 
(3) common to many words in the vocabulary 
of the child: for example, s, m, 1, f, a, e, o. The 
combinations should be such as are (1) easily 
learned as wholes, and (2) useful for reading; 
for example, ing, ight. Letters, the sounds of 
which have been taught, should be combined 
with words taught as wholes to form new 
words; for example, f combined with at, 
in, ill. 

2. As a preparation for the recognition and pro- 

nunciation- of new words, the teacher should 
slowly sound words which the pupils will 



READING 281 

recog-nize by ear. Words taught by ihe phonic 
method should be introduced into the sentence 
reading- very g-radually so that the expression 
may not suffer. The use of diacritical marks 
as a help to reading is optional." 

3. Use initial stock of ideas in pupils' minds. 

Choose an interesting subject, preferably an 
animal or other living thing. Use conversa- 
tion leading; to expression in simple sentences. 

4. Script. Teacher writes a sentence on board, 

drills on it and on each v^ord. Other sentences 
repeating- certain v^ords of first sentence. 

5. Phonics. Easy elementary sounds, phonog-rams 

and blending-. 

6. Drill. Keep lists of phonograms and v^^ords for 

frequent drill. 

7. Print. Early transition from script to the print 

in the book. Neither teachers nor pupils print. 

8. Visualization and imitation. Teacher writes 

slowly on board, pronouncing- each letter and 
each word. Pupils observe to get visual and 
motor imag-es. Then as teacher counts or di- 
rects, each pupil may reproduce the writing- 
in the air; this followed by writing on paper 
or board. Use pencil or crayon. 

422. Good reading defined. — Interpretation of the author is 
good reading. The analysis of this definition will show that 
it covers all of the mental and the physical qualifications of 
good reading. The physical qualities are articulation, enun- 
ciation, pronunciation, pitch, modulation, time, accent, and 
inflection. The general position of the body and the holding 
of the book contribute much to these qualities. The mental 
qualities are the results of an application of the physical 
qualities so that the selection may be properly expressed. 
This lUiterpj-etatioii expressed involves emphasis, placing of 
rhetorical pauses, fluency, and feeling. 



282 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

423. Physical difficulties. 

1. Distinct articulation and enunciation. Appeal 

to imitative faculty of child, the teacher being- 
the model ; have individual and class drills on 
difficult sounds and combinations like th in 
v^ith, t in first, r in frog", k in sink. 

2. Modulation of voice. Work for pure speaking- 

tones, the teacher being- the model again. 

3. Weak attention. Have short, interesting lessons, 

and stop before interest v^anes. Physical con- 
ditions often determine the duration of sus- 
tained interest. Timidity, bashfulness and 
laziness should also be considered as causes. 

424. Mental difficulties. 

1. Association. Reading- calls for a threefold 

effort : the idea in the mind, the spoken w^ords, 
and the symbols representing- these words. 
This association requires time, as required by 
DeGarmo's Lav^ of Successive Clearness. 

2. Intelligence. Strive to g-et intellig-ent reading-, 

not a mere pronunciation of words. See the 
term critical reading- in 430. 

425. Reading to pupils. — According- to the course of study 
the teacher's aim should be (1) to develop an interest in read- 
ing- ; (2) to cultivate the imag-ination ; (3) to present a model of 
expression ; (4) to create ideals of right living-. As the pupils 
advance in the g-rades the teacher's reading to them is not for 
the purpose of direct imitation by the pupils but to increase 
interest and maintain a standard of g-ood reading. 

426. Meaning of words. — The meaning- of words should be 
learned throug-h the context rather than from formal defini- 
tions. For various ways of teaching- the meaning-, see 147, 
173 and 500. 



READING 283 

427. Aim of phonic training. — See phonic method in 416. 

428. How to arouse interest. 

1. Beginning- in 2B, "the reading- lessons proper 

should be preceded by (1) such conversations 
as may be necessary to prepare the minds of 
the pupils for the appreciation of the subject 
matter, and (2) exercises which will insure 
the prompt recognition of the forin and the 
meaning of new words." Which of the Formal 
Steps of Instruction are used here? Silent 
reading preparatory to oral reading is also 
recommended in this grade. 

2. Dictionary. — In 4A "the use of diacritical 

marks as aids in the pronunciation of difficult 
words, and in the intelligent use of the diction- 
ary, is recommended." 

3. In 6A teachers should give informal talks on 

books to read at home, being guided in recom- 
mendations by tastes and interests of the in- 
dividual pupils. 

4. In 6B the power of sustained interest is culti- 

vated by reading long selections or complete 
works. Have one rapid reading to get con- 
ception of the piece of literature as a whole ; 
part of the reading may be done by teacher, 
part by pupils in class, and part by the pupils 
at home. A second reading should clear away 
the difficulties in meanings, and pupils should 
try to get the thought and feeling rather than 
the form of the selection. 

5. Oral report on home reading and current topics 

is recommended in 7A. 

429. Complete works vs. selections. 

"Another reform of great consequence has taken place dur- 
ing the past fifteen years in the teaching of reading. The 



284 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

movement had its orig-in in the conviction on the part of Presi- 
dent Eliot and others that reading v^as too formal ; that read- 
ing- is but a means and not an end, and that so soon as the 
mechanical elements are mastered it should be used as a 
vehicle to transmit the contents of literature to the child. This 
reform, which v^as greatly assisted by the discussions and 
reports of the "Committee of Ten" and the "Committee of 
Fifteen," has revolutionized the school readers and the courses 
of study throughout the length and breadth of the land. 
Courses of study in the elementary school now demand, in the 
upper grades, the critical and appreciative study of master- 
pieces of literature, and the school readers are no longer made 
up of "useful information" and twaddle on moral subjects in- 
vented by the compilers of readers. But they contain, even in 
the lowest numbers, pieces that possess genuine literary 
merit. So that instead of reading about "Jane's Doll" and 
"Jack's Top," the boys and girls of the second and third 
grades read the poems of Longfellow, Field and Cary. 

In the secondary and collegiate courses similar changes 
have occurred. Formerly, courses in literature consisted 
largely of the mastery of treatises about literature and its 
creators. Now they consist of the concrete, first-hand study 
of entire masterpieces representing authors or types of liter- 
ary form. 

The changes may be summed up by saying that the courses 
in English have been infinitely enriched by placing the em- 
phasis on the subject-matter of literature rather than on the 
mere form of mechanical aspect." — From approved answers, 
p. 170, McEvoy's Science of Education. 

430. Critical reading, — The appreciative study of complete 
masterpieces, as suggested in 429, is made by going over the 
masterpiece three times. To distinguish this process from one 
hurried reading, the name critical reading has been applied. 

First reading for general conception; some portions read by 
teacher for the purpose of creating a right atmosphere; other 



readijSG 285 

portions read aloud by pupils in class; minor portions read by 
pupils at home. 

Second reading- for the more careful treatment of important 
parts. The aim being- to bring- about an appreciation of the 
beauty of the selection rather than to accumulate a fund of in- 
formation concerning- words or allusions. 

Third reading- for effective oral rendering- of those parts of 
the selection which make special appeals to the pupils' im- 
agfinations and sympathies. 

431. Silent reading. A larg-e part of the work of school and 
of life depends upon the power of reading- silently. As all 
g-ood reading- means an interjiretation of thoug-ht, it follows 
that the teacher's duty is to show pupils how to g-et the thought 
from the printed page through the process of silent reading-. 
This may naturally follow the ability to do good work in oral 
reading-, but special exercises to test the children upon the 
work in the reading- lesson and in the library books is recom- 
mended. See 3 and 5 under 428. 

432. Difficulties in the selection.— See 173 and 490. 

433. Articulation violated. — Articulation has reference to the 
distinct utterance of the sounds of the letters and syllables 
constituting- a w^ord. This 'distinct enunciation is violated in 
four different ways. 

1. Suppression of a syllable; as, ev'ry for every, 

reg-'lar for regular, and mem'ry for memory. 

2. The omission of sounds; as, readin for reading, 

swif'ly for swiftly, and Feb'uary for February. 

3. The substitution of sounds; as, ufford for afford, 

judgmunt for judgment, modist for modest. 

4. Blending of the termination of one word with the 

beginning of another; as, this sworld for this 
world. 

434. Accent and emphasis. — Accent is the stress of voice 
placed upon a syllable; emphasis is the stress of voice placed 
upon one or more words in a sentence. The difference in ac- 



286 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

cent is illustrated by the nouns and verbs alike excepting the 
accent. Thus : conduct, meaning behavior, is accented on 
the first syllable; while, conduct, to lead, is accented on the 
second syllable. 

Emphasis is frequently denoted in books by the use of italics, 
small capitals, or large capitals. But these indications are 
not always used, and so the interpretation of the piece to be 
read requires the student to place the emphasis so that the 
meaning of the author will be properly expressed. An illus- 
tration from the Union Fifth Reader by Sanders is this sen- 
tence from Webster: "Liberty <2/?<^ union, now ^m-'f forever, 
ONE and inseparable." Or this one: lyeason! cried the 
speaker; treason, treason, TREASON, reechoed from every 
part of the house. 

Absolute emphasis is the kind just illustrated. It belongs 
to the important words in a sentence, irrespective of contrast- 
ing emphasis. Antithetic emphasis depends upon contrasting 
parts of a sentence. 

"People do not lack strength; they lack will.'''' 

435. Inflection. — The word inflection means a rising or a 
falling of the voice in reading or speaking. The four kinds 
of tones classified under inflection are the monotone, the ris- 
ing inflection, the falling inflection, and the circumflex. 
Strictly speaking, the monotone is not an inflection at all be- 
cause there is no rising or falling but for convenience it is 
classified with the other three kinds of tones. Following is 
an illustration for each kind of tone. 

1. Monotone. "Thy will be done." 

2. Rising inflection. 

The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool. 
The playful children just let loose from school; 
The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whisper- 
ing wind. 
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind ; 
These all in sweet confusion sought the shade, 
And filled each pause the nightingale had made. 



READING 287 

In these lines from the Deserted Villag-e, use 
rising- inflection on pool, school, 7uind ; falling 
on shade and made. 

3. Falling inflection. 

Brutus. Go to ; you are not, Cassius. 

Cassius. I am. 

Brutus. I say you are not. 

Cassius. Urge me no more ; I shall forget my- 
self. . Have mind upon your health ; tempt me 
no further. — From Julius C^sar. 

Falling inflection on to, 7iot, Cassius, am, not, 
7nore, inyself, health, ftcrther. 

4. Circumflex for underscored words. 

And this man has become a god, and Cassius a 
wretched creature. 

436. Modulation: pitch, quantity, quality.— Modulation has ref- 
erence to the variations in the voice in speaking and reading. 
Modulation is both mental and physical and it depends upon 
the emotional interpretation of the selection to be read. 

Modulation is expressed in three different ways. Pitch has 
reference to the high or low tones of the voice; quantity means 
the volume or the loudness of the tones; quality has reference 
to the kind of tone. Pitch is easily distinguished by asso- 
ciating it with the musical scale. Quantity is measured by 
the volume of the sound as soft or loud ; and by the time as 
slow or quick. Volume has reference to the stress; time has 
reference to the movement. Illustrations of the principal char- 
acteristics under quantity are given below. Number (1) is 
high and loud; (2) very loud; (3) quick; (4) soft; (5) very loud; 
(6) plaintive; (7) and (8)- slow and low. Selection and appli- 
cation taken from page 44, Union Fourth Reader by Sanders. 

(1) The combat deepens ! (2) on ! ye brave! 
(3) Who rush to glory, (4) or the grave ! 
(5) Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave ! 
And CHARGE with all thy chivalry ! 



288 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(6) Ah! few shall part where many meet! 

The snow shall be their winding sheet, 
And every turf beneath their feet 

(7) (8) Shall be a soldier's sepulcher ! 

— Campbell. 

Quality relates to the kind of tone. Under ordinary classi- 
fications there are the four kinds. Sanders, an authority fol- 
lowed by nearly all the modern books, gives four definitions 
which we shall quote. 

"1. The pure tone is a clear, smooth, sonorous flow 
of sound, usually accompanied with the middle 
pitch of voice, and is adapted to express emo- 
tions of joy, cheerfulness, love, and tranquility. 

EXAMPLE. 

Hail ! beauteous stranger of the wood, 

Attendant on the spring, 
Now heaven repairs thy vernal seat. 

And woods thy welcome sing. 

2, The orotund is a full, deep, round, and pure 

tone of voice, peculiarly adapted in expressing 
sublime and pathetic emotions. 

EXAMPLE. 

Its thunders ! Sons of dust, in reverence bow ! 
Ancients of Days ! Thou speakest from above : 
Almighty ! trembling, like a timid child, 
I hear thy awful voice. Alarmed — afraid — 
I see the flashes of thy lightning wild. 
And in the very grave would hide my head. 

3. The aspirated tone of voice is not a pure, vocal 

sound, but rather a forcible breathing utter- 
ance, and is used to express amazement, fear, 
terror, anger, revenge, remorse, and fervent 
emotions. 



READING 289 

EXAMPLE. 

Oh, coward conscience, how dost thou affright 

me ! 
The lights burn blue. It is now dead midnight; 
Cold, fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh. 

4. The guttural quality is a deep, aspirated tone of 
voice, used to express aversion, hatred, loath- 
ing, and contempt. 

EXAMPLE. 

Tell me I hate the bowl ? 

Hate is a feeble word : 
I loathe, ABHOR, my very soul 

With strong disgust is stirred. 
Whene'er I see, or hear, or tell, 
Of the dark beverage of hell." 

437. Pauses: grammatical, rhetorical. — Rhetorical pauses are 
those made in reading, irrespective of the construction or the 
punctuation of the passage. Grammatical pauses are those 
made in accordance with the construction and the punctuation 
of the passage. The former is illustrated: 

Sweet was the sound | when oft at evening's close | 
Up yonder hill | the village murmur rose. | 

438. Control of the breath. — As in all other school work there 
are two conditions to be considered, the physical and the 
mental. We have already spoken about the necessity of good 
physical conditions in each child and the consequent mental 
conditions. Good breathing requires proper position in sitting 
and standing. It involves practice in deep breathing and the 
general poise of mind and body. The child that is taught to 
breathe deeply will soon form the habit of breathing in that 
way most of the time. When he comes to the practice in oral 
reading, the breathing will then take care of itself and his 
attention can be given to the mental qualities of good reading, 



290 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

while the breathing- will supplement his interpretation by 
means of the oral expression. The ordinary "setting^ up" 
exercises in physical culture are intended to put the body into 
physical conditions for effective breathing in all school work. 

439. Extensive and intensive reading. — Extensive reading 
refers to the amount of reading done by the pupil ; while in- 
tensive reading relates to the depth of the interpretation made. 
The present tendency is toward extensive reading. Stanley 
Hall and some other educators advocate the mastery of one 
good book in literature rather than the promiscuous reading 
of books. The latter may seem to satisfy the desires and 
views of the child, but there will be a lack of classified mater- 
ial or an utter foigetfulness of the matter read. Intensive 
reading of a few good books will enable the pupil to get the 
thought of the author, to become familiar with the author's 
style of writing, and to form ideals worthy of imitation. There 
are arguments in favor of each kind of reading-, but a personal 
opinion favors the latter kind. 

440. Home reading.— The following paragraphs are taken 
from the New York City course of study regarding the use of 
library books : 

The class library is designed to supplement school work 
and to furnish the teacher with such material as will attract 
the children to books, create a love for good literature, and en- 
courage the habit of reading outside of school hours. A good 
rule to be followed in the selection of books is the one laid 
down by Dr. Hill in "The True Order of Studies" : "The most 
instructive reading for a person of any age, old or young, is 
that in which the author's tone of thought is above the average 
tone of the reader's thought, and yet not beyond his grasp." 

The pupils should have convenient access to the library 
for reference work and general reading. They should be en- 
couraged to draw books and take them home. Books should 
be kept not longer than two weeks without renewal; and such 



RKADING 291 

books as are in great demand should not be retained by a 
pupil more than one week. 

441. Literature and character. — In Chapter IV we quoted 
from the New York Course of Study regarding- moral educa- 
tion. The matter quoted emphasized the use of literature as 
an aid in the formation of character. This view needs no de- 
fense. The topic is inserted here to emphasize the need of 
more direction regarding what children shall read. The 
teacher of ordinary reading is supposed to give the child the 
power to interpret good literature but her task does not end 
with that part of the work; she must supplement those efforts 
in teaching by trying to direct the child into habits of reading 
a kind of literature that will form character for life. 

442. Memory gems. — To what extent should pupils be re- 
quired to memorize gems from literature ? What should be 
the characteristics of such memory selections? 

A minimum assignment should be prescribed for every grade 
in the elementary school. The selections are intended to aid 
pupils in thought and expression rather than to serve as mere 
training for the memory. Each selection has the merit (a) 
of being adapted to the grade, (b) of teaching some desirable 
lesson, (c) of posessing literary excellence. 

NEW YORK CITY SUGGESTIONS. 
lA. 

At least four lines of poetry per week, or an equivalent 
amount of prose, should be memorized by every pupil. The 
selections may be made from ihe following list : 

Little Pussy. — Taylor. 

The Dewdrop. — Sherman. 

Who has Seen the Wind? — Rossetti. 

Sleep, Baby, Sleep (two stanzas). — From the German. 

The Rain is Raining All Around. — Stevenson. 

The Wind. — Stevenson. 

Boats Sail on the Rivers. — Rosetti. 



292 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Mother Goose Rhymes : 

Humpty Dumpty, Little Bo-Peep, 

Mistress Mary, Little Boy Blue, 

Little Jack Horner, Baa, Baa, Black Sheep, 

Rockaby, Baby, Thy Cradle is Green, 
Rockaby, Baby, on the Tree Top, 

This Little Pig- Went to Market, etc. 

IB. 

The Sunbeams. — Poulsson. 
Over in the Meadow. — Wadsworth. 
Hush ! the Waves are Rolling- in. — Old Gaelic Lul- 
laby. 
What Does Little Birdie Say ? — Tennyson. 
The Baby.— MacDonald. 
The Golden Rule. — New Eng-land Primer. 
Robin Redbreast. — Allingham. 
Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.— Taylor. 
Nonsense Alphabet. — Lear. 

Mother Goose Jingles : 

Sing- a Song of Sixpence. As I Went Through the 
I Saw a Ship a-Sailing. Garden Gap, etc. 

I Had a Little Sister. Thirty White Horses. 

Peter Piper. Little Nancy Etticoat. 

The House That Jack Built. 

2a. 

The Swing. — Stevenson. 
Bed in Summer. — Stevenson. 
Who Stole the Bird's Nest?— Child. 
Daisies. — Sherman. 
Seven Times One. — Ingelow. 
The Rock-a-By Lady.— Field. 
All Things Beautiful. — Alexander. 
Proverbs and Maxims. 



READING 293 



2b. 



Don't Kill the Birds.— Colesworthy. 
Ariel's Song-, "Where the bee sucks." — Shakspere. 
My Shadow. — Stevenson. 
Dutch Lullaby.— Field. 
Windy Nights. — Stevenson. 
Lady Moon. — Houghton. 
Stop, Stop, Pretty Water.— Follen. 
The Land of Story Books. — Stevenson. 
Thanksg-iving- Day. — Child. 
Proverbs and Maxims. 

3a. 

I Live for Those Who Love Me. — Anon. 
The Brown Thrush. — Larcom. 
The Tree. — Bjornsen. 
Wishing. — Allingham. 
The Owl and the Pussy Cat. — Lear. 
The Violet.— Jane Taylor. 
Hiawatha's Childhood. — Longfellow. 
Hiawatha's Sailing. — Longfellow. 
Proverbs and Maxims. 

3b. 

The Child's World.— Lilliput Lectures. 
Marjorie's Almanac. — Aldrich. 
A Visit from St. Nicholas. — Moore. 
The Owl. — Tennyson. 
The Captain's Daughter.— Field. 
Sweet and Low. — Tennyson. 
Proverbs and Maxims. 



4a. 



The Night Wind.— Field. 

The Children's Hour. — Longfellow. 

Jack Frost. — Gould. 



294 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Robert of Lincoln. — Bryant. 

"He Prayeth Best."— Coleridg-e. 

The Wreck of the Hesperus. — Longfellow. 

4b. 

The Fountain. — Lowell. 
September.— Jackson. 
The Villag-e Blacksmith. — Long-fellow. 
The Mountain and the Squirrel. — Emerson. 
Barefoot Boy. — Whittier. 
Drill exercises, as in 4A. 

5a. 

The Landing- of the Pilg-rims. — Hemans. 

The Day Is Done. — Longfellow. 

"Under the Greenwood Tree." — Shakspere. 

A Sea Dirge. — Shakspere. 

Woodman, Spare That Tree. — Morris. 

The Gladness of Nature. — Bryant. 

Excelsior. — Long-fellow. 

The Arrow and the Song-.- Long-fellow. 

5b. 
The World Wants Men.— Anon. 
Aladdin. — Lowell. 
Psalm of Life. — Long-fellow. 
To the Fring-ed Gentian. — Bryant. 
The Planting- of the Apple-Tree. — Bryant. 
Paul Revere's Ride. — Longfellow. 
Barbara Frietchie. — Whittier. 
Today.— Carlyle. 

6a. 

Orpheus with His Lute. — Shakspere. 
The Destruction of Sennacherib. — Byron. 
A Man's a Man for A' That.— Burns. 
The Minstrel Boy. — Moore. 



READING 295 

Abou Ben Adhem. — Hunt. 
The First Snow-FalL— Lowell. 
Nobility. — Gary. 
Sheridan's Ride. — Read. 
Song- of Marion's Men.— Bryant. 
6b. 

The Spacious Firmament. — Addison. 
Burial of Sir John Moore. — Wolfe. 
The Builders. — Long-fellow. 
Old Ironsides. — Holmes. 
One by One. — Proctor. 
"Breathe's There the Man."— Scott. 
The Blue and the Gray.— Finch. 
The White-Footed Deer.— Bryant. 

7a. 
Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz. — Longfellow. 
To a Waterfowl. — Bryant. 
The Finding of the Lyre. — Lowell. 
The Year's at the Spring.— Browning. 
"It is not growing like a tree " — Jonson. 
Daybreak. — Longfellow. 
Bannockburn. — Burns. 

7b. 

Thanatopsis. — Bryant. 

Charge of the Light Brigade. — Tennyson. 

Hohenlinden. — Campbell. 

"Good name in man or woman." — Shakspere. 

"Farewell, a long farewell to all my greatness."— 

Shakspere. 
The Bugle Song.— Tennyson. 
"There was a sound of revelry." — Byron. 

8a. 
"Thou, too, sail on." — Longfellow. 
"The quality of mercy. "—Shakspere. 



296 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

The Chambered Nautilus. — Holmes. 
My Heart Leaps Up. — Wordsworth. 
The Brook. — Tennyson. 
Sound the Loud Timbrel. — Moore. 
"I wandered lonely." — Wordsworth. 
The Concord Hymn. — Emerson. 
Opportunity.^ — Sill. 
Warren''s Address. — Pierpont. 
Bunker Hill Oration. — Webster. 
Polonius's Advice. — Shakspere. 

8b. 

Liberty and Union. — Webster. 
To a Skylark.— Shelley. 
Eleg-y. — Gray. 
The Forest Hymn. — Bryant. 
Commemoration Ode (Division VI.) — Lowell. 
On His Blindness. — Milton. 
The Way to Heaven.— Holland. 
Sandalphon. — Long-fellow. 

"This was the noblest Roman of them all." — Shak- 
spere. 
Gettysburg- Address. — Lincoln. 
"What is so rare as a day in June." — Lowell. 

443. Patriotic selections. — There are two views reg-arding- 
the teaching- of patriotism. One mentions specific virtues in 
civic life and then proceeds to teach the necessity of having- 
these virtues. This teaching- is done larg-ely through biography 
and history. The tendency toward imitation of the lives of 
g-reat men and women is the principle upon which this kind of 
training- rests. The other view is throug-h the self-activity of 
the pupils in organizations for pupil self-government and in 
the supplementary reading of chosen selections which convey 
the highest ideals in American life. The latter process is the 
one that justifies the use of patriotic material in the course 



READING 297 

for reading-. Such material exalts civic virtues, which are 
treated abstractly in the first view of patriotic training-, but 
the teacher does not preach the necessity of following every 
one of these virtues. She hopes, however, to have the pupil, 
through the interpretation of the literature, recognize the 
ideals and feel it a duty and a pleasure to strive to attain such 
standards. 

444. Biography. — In the chapter on history we spoke of 
biography as a correlated means of making historic events 
emphatic. A similar use may be found in reading-. The 
selections in literature will have a strong-er personal relation 
as the child becomes acquainted with the lives and character- 
istics of the author. This point of view alone justifies the use 
of a certain amount of biography as a part of the suitable 
material in the course in reading-. 

445. How to memorize a selection. — The following sugges- 
tions are the outgrowth of personal experience. 

1. Choose a selection that will appeal to the inter- 

ests of the class. It may be necessary to edu- 
cate the children to appreciate certain kinds 
of prose or poetry. In this process of education 
teachers should select material that will suit 
the children during- the various steps in their 
development. 

2. Use a selection that may be found in the books 

of the class so that each child may have a 
copy for his own use. If this is not possible, 
write the whole selection on the board so that 
it may be easily seen from any part of the 
room. 

3. Bring out the essential facts in the biography of 

the author. 

4. Show the conditions which led to the writing of 

the selection. 



298 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

5. Don't make a long- introduction in trying- to 

arouse interest. Make the teaching- of the 
selection a matter of business which every 
child in class ought to respect. The very fact 
that the selection has been chosen for this pur- 
pose is enough to invite respectful attention ; 
and the facts brought out in the biography and 
in the conditions at the time of writing the 
selection are enough to interest an average 
class. 

6. Have the pupils take a comfortable position, fix 

attention upon the matter on the board and 
prepare themselves for concert work. 

7. The teacher should direct the lesson by having 

all pupils read the whole selection through 
once. Then take it by stanzas or paragraphs, 
and then the third time begin upon the sen- 
tences. Concert memorizing of a certain 
amount of the selection is made by means of 
visualization. Concert and individual drill 
follows. 

8. Review frequently from the beginning so that 

pupils may hold the parts in their relation to 
the whole. Do not prolong the work to the 
point of fatigue. Grade selection according 
to the ability of the class to memorize, and stop 
when the complete selection is mastered. The 
completion of the process may be assig-ned for 
home work. 

446. Rhetorical exercises. — The practice of having rhetorical 
exercises, from time to time, is to be commended as a useful 
exercise in school work. Those who have read the substance 
of this book do not need an extensive answer to this question. 
Such exercises are a kind of oral summary of the leading 



READING 299 

points in all the lessons; but as a means of bring-ing- out the 
dramatic element in expression they have a far greater value. 
From w^hat has been said about class discussions, debates, 
etc., students can summarize the points of value in rhetorical 
exercises. 

447. Adaptation. — We have emphasized the necessity of 
adaptation all through the grades in the elementary schools 
and so that g-eneral principle can be applied to every exercise 
in the course in reading-. 

448. Variety.— The lav^ of variety is a physical and a men- 
tal necessity. It is the one valuable point in the avoidance of 
fatig-ue. As the reading matter is one external means of 
adapting variety, it is not necessary to offer a longer defense 
of its use. 

449. Correlation. — Since reading is necessary as a basis 
for all studies, it follov^s that reading must be correlated v^^ith 
all studies. It is not necessary, how^ever, to make the recita- 
tion periods in reading lose their character as such in the 
effort to cover the v^ork in geography, grammar, arithmetic, or 
other studies. 

450. Habit. — For one point of view see section 441, and then 
apply that thought to the material in Chapter IV. 



Chapter XVI. Examination Department. 
Typical Questions and Answers. 

451. Association of ideas. — Explain associatioii of ideas. ' 
Association means the relation of ideas, of images, of feel- 
ing's, etc., because of similarity or of contiguity. One thing is 
like another. That thing recalled to consciousness recalls 
the other without effort. One thing is the result of another 
that we learned at same time or in same place. We re- 
call one, we recall the other. 

A child has been taught spelling by the method of visualiz- 
ation. The name Florida recalls to his mind not only his 
mental conception of the state of Florida but likewise the 
image of the word Florida as it appeared when written on a 
blackboard. He associates the image of the written form with 
the spoken word. Likewise he associates all concepts in con- 
sciousness related to Florida. We remember by association. 
In history when teaching the early explorations, have the date 
of the founding of St. Augustine learned. Later we study 
the founding of the oldest settlement of the south-west, Santa 
Fe. Instead of learning this date we associate it with St. 
Augustine and thus form a stronger link in memory for the 
first date. Santa Fe was founded seventeen years later. 
James says verbal memory is strong only in young children. 
The older one grows, the weaker it becomes. It behooves us, 
therefore, to form the habit of remembering by association. 

Correlation is founded upon the idea of association of knowl- 
edge. The concentration idea of the Herbartians, which is a 
form of correlation, is likewise founded upon the great idea of 
teaching by means of associating knowledge. 

452. Observation : cultivation of power of. 

{a) What is meant by the cultivation or development of the 
power of observation? (j) 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 301 

(^) Show by giving directions and illustrations how the 
po%ver of observatioti may be developed or trained. (5) 

The cultivation or development of the power of observa- 
tion means the cultivation or development of the senses in such 
a manner that vibrations g^iven out by any new objects are 
quickly, easily, and correctly interpreted by the nerve centres 
so as to bring a train of thought to consciousness. Two boys 
walk along- a country road. One, A, has been trained to ob- 
serve; the other, B, not. A notices and observes. At end 
of walk should you question him he could tell you how sky 
looked, how road looked, in what direction was the wind, 
various birds seen, their nests, kind of trees along the road, 
kind of rocks, wild-flowers seen, changes of season as shown 
in vegetation, what the weather of late has affected etc. B has 
been oblivious of all these things and has probably not 
seen any of them. The same things gave forth vibrations but 
his senses did not convey vibrations to nerve centres for inter- 
pretations. 

(b) Tell children on way to and from school to look for 
some particular thing during the course of several days, for 
instance, appearance of ground in spring after rain when 
worms have been at work. Have them try to find cause. Their 
interest is then aroused. Talk in school on subject at end of 
time of observation and appoint a new topic. Treat in same 
way. 

Present objects for study. Bring out points you wish ob- 
served by questions upon those special points. 

453. Attention and interest : ten rules. — Discuss each of the 
following rules, indicating in partictilar how your viezvs bear 
upon attention and interest. 

1. Introduce new subjects objectively when possible. 

This rule embodies many of the elementary axioms. It may 
be expressed in another way by saying that the inductive 
method should be used, or that we should proceed from the 
empirical to the rational, or that sense instruction should be 



302 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

employed, or that visualization is made possible by the co- 
ordination of all the senses. In presenting- the subject of 
liquid measure it is advisable to have a measure for gill, pint 
and quart and then to allow the pupils by actual measure of 
v^rater to see that the table expresses a truth. This process 
involves attention, interest and self- activity. 

2. Present only a few^ ideas at a time. 

This is another w^ay of saying- that the mind can exercise 
only a definite amount of energy at any one time. This amount 
varies with each natural ability and degree of development. 
It is another way of expressing what De Garmo calls the law 
of successive clearness. This process of limiting the lesson to 
a few ideas is an aid to interest and attention by permitting 
the child to comprehend all that is given to him instead of 
presenting- more matter than he can assimilate. The presen- 
tation of too many ideas becomes a cause of fatigue and then 
all the mental energies are affected. 

3. Ask questions promptly and require prompt answers. 
The relation of this rule to attention and interest lies in the 

necessity of alertness when the teacher does ask questions 
promptly and the pupils do answer promptly. It gives neither 
time nor inclination to let the mind wander from the point 
under discussion, and so it places pupils, teacher and sub- 
ject-matter within the circle of instruction. In other words, 
it is a practical way of covering- subject-matter and then pass- 
ing to another kind of subject-matter before the pupils have 
time to become wearied by the work. 

4. Ask the questions before you call the name of the pupil. 
If the pupil's name should be called first, then all the other 

pupils in the room may feel that they will not be called upon, 
and hence it is not necessary for them to give their attention 
to the question or to the answer. 

5. Do not repeat a question 

This holds good as a general rule but still it has exceptions. 
The teacher who makes it customary to repeat a question 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 303 

every time a pupil asks for the repetition will soon find that 
the children do not give their attention to w^hatshe is teaching- 
because they know that she will repeat the question upon the 
subject-matter. The exception relates to the development of 
new matter in which time is required by the pupils for assimi- 
lating the new ideas. The repetition of a question in the 
same or in modified form impresses the leading ideas by giv- 
ing the children time to grasp the new matter as it is related 
to the apperceiving group. 

6. Do not look fixedly at the pupil you are going to call to 
answer. 

The objections to this way of conducting a recitation are the 
same as for asking the question after calling the pupil. The 
pupil knows he is to be called and other pupils know that 
they are not to be called for that question. The other point of 
view regarding the rule is in favor of looking fixedly at the 
pupil. In every class there are certain timid or nervous or 
backward children who need to have warning so that they 
may compose themselves before trying to answer the question. 
While answering the question it is then a means of direct en- 
couragement to such pupils to feel the assurance that the 
teacher is working with them and is in sympathy with them. 

7. Do not look steadily at the pupil who is answering. 

This rule has the two points of view expressed in the pre- 
ceding rule. If the teaching process means a harmony of 
thinking between teacher and pupil, it is no violation of proper 
methods for the teacher to look steadily at the one who is 
answering. If opposed to the principle of including other 
members of the class, it may be said that successful school 
management considers the whole class a unit and all are 
supposed to be giving attention to the teacher whether he is 
looking at one or at more than one. 

8. Vary your ways and try to arouse curiosity. Make all 
exercises brief. 



304 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

This rule is a summary of many of the points g-iven in the 
preceding- rules. In sayings that it is necessary to arouse 
curiosity, it is simply putting- emphasis upon preparation as 
one of the formal steps of instruction. In making exercises 
brief, the teacher is again guarding- against inattention and 
fatigue. 

9. Speak in low distinct tones. 

The first reason in favor of this rule is that pupils are led to 
adapt themselves to the standard set by the teacher. If con- 
fusion or disorder causes the teacher to speak in louder tones, 
the children have no cause for trying- to remain quiet to hear 
what the teacher says. A low, distinct tone necessitates still- 
ness in the room; it does not disturb the dispositions of pupils 
who are inclined to be nervous; it does not g-ive an example to 
pupils in loud or harsh speaking-; nor does it put the teacher 
under any personal feeling- of her inability to manage the 
class and cause them to adapt themselves to her manner of 
speaking- and teaching. 

10. Show your interest in the subject. 

This rule needs no defense. Pupils can judg-e human na- 
ture even better than adults can judg-e it, and if a teacher is 
not interested in what she is teaching she has no moral right 
to expect her pupils to be interested in that subject. That 
both should be interested is a requisite for the kind of teach- 
ing that looks upon their class as a unit in the larger social 
organization. 

454. Consciousness. — What is meant by consciousness? 

The distinctive character of whatever may be called mental 
life is consciousness. Whatever we are when we are awake, 
as contrasted with what we are when we sink into a profound 
or dreamless sleep, that it is to be conscious. What we are 
less and less, as we sink accordingly down into dreamless 
sleep, or as we swoon slowly away; and what we are more 
and more as the noise of the great outside tardily arouses us 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 305 

from our afterdinner nap, that is consciousness. — Ladd's 
Psycholog-y, 30. 

455. Attention. — Define, discuss and illustiuite attention. 

(a) Attention is concentrated consciousness. Hume says 
attention is consciousness occupying- itself with an object. In 
consciousness we are aware of many thoughts and objects, but 
in attention all the powers of the mind are directed to one 
thing- or object. In the best forms of attention an object or 
sound may be directly presented to the senses and yet I am 
unaware of the fact. "We g-ive best attention when there are no 
physical or psychical obstacles. For instance, I am very tired, 
bodily tired. I go upon a street car. Usually I attend to 
thing-s g-oing- on around me. Now, I g"ive no attention to them. 
I am too conscious of my weariness. This weariness is a physi- 
cal obstacle which inhibits attention to the things around me. 

I pick up a book in Russian. I open it and I try to interpret 
it. I fail. I lose interest and find myself unable to concen- 
trate my mind upon the book. It is too difficult for my mind. 
I have no apperceiving group to bring the power upon an ob- 
ject. Therefore, I cannot give attention because this is a 
psychical obstacle. 

Attention is of two kinds, voluntary and involuntary. I am 
attending a course of lectures. There are no physical ob- 
stacles in the way of my attending, that is, I am not tired. 
The room is warm enough, the air is good, and all other phy- 
sical environments are satisfactory. There are no psychical 
obstacles. The speaker's topic may be new to me, but it is 
not beyond my comprehension. The speaker begins and I 
listen and follow the trend of his thought. I am giving vol- 
untary attention. 

The speaker occupies a position on a small stage. To the 
left is a door partly open. About the middle of the lecture a 
small dog peers in the doorway and runs across the stage to 
someone he knows in the room. By an involuntary act my 
mind leaves the trend of the lecturer's thought for a few min- 

21 



306 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

utes and pays attention to the dog-. This is involuntary atten- 
tion. So involuntary attention is consciousness, not controlled 
by the will, occupying- itself with an object. Voluntary at- 
tention is consciousness, controlled by the will, occupying it- 
self with an object, (b) A voluntary action is an action per- 
formed as the result of a volition on the part of the doer. It 
implies that the doer knew what he was doing and he did it 
of his own free will. It also implies that the action was per- 
formed as the result of the interpretation of vibrations by the 
brain rather than the result of an interpretation in a nerve 
center located outside of the brain in the spinal column. 

Illustration. I am working at my desk. The window is 
open. The wind blows a sheet of paper against my hand. I 
remove the paper without being conscious of my action and 
without taking my thought from the work in which I am en- 
g-aged. This is an involuntary action. A few minutes later 
during the same kind of study I hear of a friend's illness. I 
stop my work and immediately prepare to go to see that friend. 
I am conscious of what I am doing, but I do it of my own will. 
This action is voluntary action. 

456. Will : James on balky will. 

"The teacher often is confronted in the schoolroom with an 
abnormal type of will, which we may call the balky will. 
Certain children, if they do not succeed in doing ? thing im- 
mediately, remain completely inhibited in regard to it ; it be- 
comes literally impossible for them to understand it if it be an 
intellectual problem, or to do it if it be an outward operation, 
as long as this particular inhibited condition lasts. ' — James. 

(a) Describe wrong 7vays of dealing with such cases, with 
their usual or natural results. 

{b) Describe a psychologically right ivay of dealing with 
such cases. Give reaso7is. 

(a) This quotation from James is found on page 182 in 
Talks to Teachers. "Such children," he says, "are usually 
treated as sinful, and are punished ) or else the teacher puts 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 307 

his or her will against the child's will, considering- that the 
latter must be broken. Such will-breaking is always a scene 
attended with a great deal of nervous wear and tear on both 
sides, a bad state of feeling left behind it, and the victory not 
always with the would-be will-breaker. 

(b) The answer is quoted from James. When a situation 
of the kind is once fairly developed, and the child is all tense 
and excited inwardly, nineteen times out of twenty it is best 
for the teacher to apperceive the case as one of neural patho- 
logy rather than as one of moral culpability. So long as the 
inhibiting sense of impossibility remains in the child's mind, 
he will continue unable to get beyond the obstacle. The aim 
of the teacher should then be to make him simply forget. Drop 
the subject for the time, divert the mind to something else ; 
then, leading the pupil back by some circuitous line of asso- 
ciation, spring it on him again before he has time to recognize 
it, and as likely as not he will go over it now without any 
difficulty. 

457. Will : method of training. — Outline a useful method of 
training the will. 

One means of training the will is that of allowing as much 
liberty as possible to the individual pupil, to throw him upon 
his own resource find responsibility; giving him certain work 
to be performed within a specified time, leaving the exact 
time, place, and manner of doing the work to him. Allow him 
the freedom of the room, the building, the grounds, with the 
understanding that the privilege must be rightly used. The 
point is to get him in the habit of acting on his own initiative 
and to exercise proper control over his actions; both im.portant 
functions of the will. 

Suggest to pupils various things that they might do to im- 
prove their village or to alleviate the distress or add to the 
happiness of people less fortunate than themselves. Arouse 
their feelings to the point where they are ready to do some- 
thing, then put the opportunity before them. 



308 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Organize little clubs or societies for the accomplishment of 
certain special ends, as the protection of the birds, the cultiva- 
tion of a flower garden. Furnish all the needed instructions 
as to how to do and create the desire to do, but leave the doing 
to the children, 

458. Mind-wandering. — {a) Describe inind-wande7'-ing , and 
give the psychological causes of it. 

(b) How can mind-wandering be overcome or cured? 

No matter how scatter-brained the type of a man's successive 
fields of consciousness may be, if he really care for a subject, 
he will return to it incessantly from his incessant wanderings, 
and first and last do more with it, and get more results from 
it, than another person whose attention may be more continu- 
ous during a given interval, but whose passion for the subject 
is of a more languid and less permanent sort. Some of the 
most efficient workers I know are of the ultra-scatter-brained 
type. One friend, who does a prodigious quantity of work, 
has in fact confessed to me that, if he wants to get ideas on 
any subject, he sits down to work at something else, his best 
results coming through his mind-wanderings. This is per- 
haps an epigrammatic exaggeration on his part; but I seri- 
ously think that no one of us need be too much distressed at 
his own shortcomings in this regard. Our mind may enjoy 
but little comfort, may be restless and feel confused ; but it 
may be extremely efficient all the same. — James, Talks to 
Teachers, 114. 

459. Apperception, correlation, general notion, logical memory. — 

Define each. 

Apperception is mental assimilation. It is the gaining of 
the understanding of new knowledge by means of past ex- 
perience and knowledge. I see a strange flower. I recognize 
it as a flower by means of my former knowledge of flowers I 
have seen. 

Correlation means the relating of various kinds of knowledge. 
The mind remembers by association of ideas. Correlation 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 309 

means the bearing in mind of this idea and the associating- of 
knowledge of things along- geographical lines with knowl- 
edge of things gained along historical lines, etc. It does 
not mean the teaching of geography and history in one lesson 
but the bringing to bear upon the history lesson the facts 
learned in the geography lesson. Likewise it means the tak- 
ing up of related subjects in different lessons at same period. 
When studying geography of England, study likewise history 
of England and literature of England. 

General notion corresponds to the term concept. A concept 
is a representation answering to a general name. Many psy- 
chological elements enter, — sensation, perception, memory, 
imagination, judgment, concept. 

A logical memory is a memory which reproduces to minds 
events or ideas through their logical connection or continuity. 
It differs from mere rote memory and recalls by means of as- 
sociation. I know the date of the founding of St. Augustine 
I wish to recall the date of Santa Fe. I have learned that 
there are seventeen years difference. I then compute and re- 
member the date of Santa Fe. This is example of logical 
memory. 

460. Attention and interest. — What is the relation between 
attention and interest? Mentio?i five of your devices to arouse 
and sustain interest iti the recitation. 

Attention is concentrated consciousness. Interest is the re- 
sult of continued acts of attention. We are interested in that 
which we understand. Attention gives us such understanding. 
To sustain interest : 

I. See that every child gets a grasp upon the subject matter. 
See that he understands thoroughly. Do not go on to next 
step until each child is ready for it. 

II. Assign outside topics. Boys especially like this. If 
you use this means, be sure you do not neglect to call for work 
assigned. Such neglect is fatal. 



310 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

III. Wherever possible, get knowledge first hand, as in 
nature study. 

IV. Use maps and charts wherever possible. 

V. Vary lessons and way of conducting- recitation. Let 
children sometimes do the questioning. Let them prepare one 
question each upon the lesson to be put to class. Questions 
founded upon lesson. 

461. Imagination : definition, classes, uses. 

Imagination is the power of thinking or calling into con- 
sciousness feelings of things, persons, qualities and conditions 
of all sorts not present to the senses. It is 'twofold in its 
nature, productive and reproductive. 

In its reproductive nature, it corresponds to the various 
senses. It is, for instance, possible to divide images into 
audile, visual, gustatory, motor and tactile images. Some 
people are stronger along one line of image-making, some 
along other lines. The attempt has been made to classify 
people according to their type in this respect. The teacher 
there talks to the audiles, writes on the board for the visual, 
makes motions and enunciates prominently for the motors. As 
it cannot, however, be proved that the people who see images 
most clearly before their mind's eye necessarily make the 
best responses, and as all children possess these powers in 
some degree, such attempts seem questionable. Thinking is 
forever aided by getting images of things to be stored away in 
memory as clearly as possible because vividness is one of the 
factors in memory. 

In its productive power, imagination has resulted in the 
best achievements of the race. Imagination, in this direction, 
is the power to put parts of things, qualities, and conditions 
into new forms. We call this creative imagination. This 
functions largely in ethical thinking or idealization. Here we 
get a construction of all the qualities which appeal to us as 
standing for the highest good. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 311 

The uses of the imag-ination may therefore be classed under 
two heads, (a) its memory uses ( b) its creative uses. 

The abuses of the imagination may be thought of as (a) 
failure to g-et clear imag-es or failure in visualization, making 
for w^eak memory; (b) over-emphasis of images rather than 
responses, benumbing to self-activity. 

The creative uses of the imagination may be thv^arted by 
crushing out individuality, telling too much in history; talking 
too much in draw^ing; failure to direct thought tow^ard original 
thinking. 

462. Memory discussed and illustrated. 

Discttss fully your attitude towards the 7ne7Jiory in regard to 
its function and training. 

Memory is of tw^o kinds, the purely verbal and the logical. 
The former, by dint of continued repitition and reproduction, 
grasps and hold the v^^ords of a statement, w^ith little or no re- 
ga'rd to its meaning in many cases. I remember reading of 
an experience one teacher had of this truth. Her grade, fifth 
year, were able to sing most lustily "My Country 'lis of 
Thee" without their books. They did so to the admiration 
of her visitors. But one day that Nemesis who digs the 
steps of the great entered her door. An inquiring visitor 
asked to have the children write the first stanza that he 
might take it home as a trophy of his visit. The first paper 
the teacher took up, began "Mike Own Tree, tissuf the" — let 
us draw a veil over the remainder. 

But the logical memory is of different nature; the mind pos- 
sessing it apperceives, associates, reasons. The substance is 
secured, a logical connection between facts is established; and 
the whole is presented not in the book form perhaps, but in 
terms of the pupil's consciousness, of which it has formed a 
part. The perfect memory would combine both the words of 
the master and the thought which has become the pupil's own. 
The following is a "plan for perfect possession" which I have 



312 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

used for several years, with senior classes in teaching" 
"L'Alleg-ro" and "II Penseroso. " I g-ive it in outline. 

I. Preliminary study. 

1. Milton's Eng-land. (Use Maxwell Parrish's il- 

lustrations.) 

(a) Horton in particular. 

(b) Scenery about it. 

2. Milton's Life. 

(a) Especially boyhood and g-rowth. 

(b) Maturity as contrast to (a). 

3. Lyric poetry. 

(a) Reflection of poet's mind. 

( b) Embodiment of beautiful thougrht in beauti- 
ful words. 

II. First Reading. 

1. Nature of thought expressed. 

(a) General theme. 

(b) Minor theme. 

III. Second Reading. 

1. Careful study of all peculiarities of syntax. 

(a) Explanation of all terms, as classical allu- 
sions, etc. 

(b) General division into parts to get working 
plan. 

IV. Third Reading. 

1. Comparison of two poems for general parallelism. 

2. Selection of particular thoughts paralleled in 

each, and learning- words for several. 

(a) Music. 

(b) Birds. 

(c) Dawn. 

(d) Evening. 

(e) Shakespere. 

(f ) Human life. 

3. Parallels in other parts. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 313 

V. Review. 

1. Reading- of Macaulay's Criticism from Essay 
on Milton, and application. 

At the close of this study I have found, almost without excep- 
tion, two results; — first a thorough, in some cases a literal 
possession of the poem; second, a love for the author which has 
led to further voluntary reading- of his poetry, — and this is the 
chief aim of teachers. 

In g-eneral, memory may be cultivated by (1) a clear pre- 
sentation of the idea to be learned, showing- its central theme 
(2) requirement from the pupil of his understanding of the 
theme. ( 3) Choose a poem, read a stanza four or five times, 
close the book, recite to yourself; if you fail, reread. Then 
write from memory. Compare with the original. In case of 
error, reread, then write. Continue until the whole selection, 
not merely its parts, is your property. (4) Require repetitions 
at unexpected moments. (5) Formation of associations, — as 
when a beautiful landscape is seen, recalling what various 
writers have said of such scenes. (6) For all forms and uses 
of memory, besides mere learning-, the constant putting to use 
what has been learned. 

463. Imagination and thinking. — Explain the connection be- 
tween imaginatio7i and tJmiking. Discuss the uses and abuses 
of imagifiation in education ? 

Charles Johnson in his elements of Literary Criticism places 
the constructive imagination in the power to create, as the 
truest mark of genius. Without this power to create, man's 
thought would be confined to the limits of his own sense and 
experience. We could think only in terms of what we had 
ourselves seen and felt, — all other emotions, all other experi- 
ences beyond our ken. True thinking would be impossible. 
By creative or constructive imagination we select elements 
from our past experiences which our apperceiving- powers 
show us may be associated or combined into one, and from 
these create an image in its entirety beyond our experience, 



314 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

but made up of, or working- out from, elements we know. An 
American boy of the twentieth century can construct a pretty 
clear imag-e of the Knighthood of old from what he has seen, 
in pictures in real life, of armor and weapons of those days, 
and by seeing- a few coats of arras, can make a fairly correct 
image of The Templar's emblazoning-, and pick him out from 
a picture in Ivanhoe. This is the rig-ht use of imagination, — 
the ability to interpret the new and to put it to use practically, 
and as an apperceiving- group for new information. On it the 
scientist- relies; he pictures what should be and then combines 
elements to demonstrate that it may be, and is. But un- 
bridled imagination in fantasy is as great a danger as the 
former is a good. The imagination must be trained like the 
will, to obey the dictates of reason or it becomes like the will, 
a bad master. Unbridled imagination blunts the power of 
discrimination, the unreal, not the ideal, becomes real to us. 
We dwell in a world of wild fancy where our wishes, our wills, 
are never crossed, and become every day more dissatisfied 
with our real life. Accurate thinking becomes impossible, for 
the wild flights of fancy have disdained the steps of logical 
connection; and the outline of truth has become lost in the 
cloud of lying fancies with no basis of fact. The poet sees the 
ideal, and longs for its accomplishment; but it is an ideal 
which is the flowering of all that is best in the present. The 
dreamer sees the unreal and grasps at it for selfish gratifica- 
tion; but his fingers clutch simply air; he falls and is destroyed 
by his own failure to see that what we want is not always 
what is best for all, and that no man can hope to live utterly 
to himself and despise truth. 

464. Stages in intellectual development. — Explain the view 
that thei^e are stages iti the developnie7it of the intellect. 

"We have seen that in the very beginning of the child's 
learning the world he gains nothing but isolated sense im- 
pressions about it ; and whatever reactions he makes upon 
it are purely instinctive. This is what may not inappropri- 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 315 

ately be termed the s ens atio7ial period in the learner's career, 
employing- the term current in psychology. Soon the child 
makes a start in arranging- these impressions in the patterns 
in which they are presented by the objects to which they 
belong; and this may be styled the perceptional period, which, 
like the sensational period, is of course never entirely com- 
pleted. It is legitimate to consider them as periods only be- 
cause certain types of activities are especially prominent at 
these times. It seems proper to remark here that in an older 
day it was maintained that the mind from the beginning- ap- 
prehended the whole of anything- which was acted upon by 
the senses. The infant appreciated the form, size, taste, and 
all the other attributes of an apple the first time he looked at 
it, for instance." But modern psychology holds that the per- 
cept is built up g-radually through the co-ordination of simpler 
elements. It is the product of organization of factors orig-i- 
nally independent. It is a complex which in any individual 
case is constantly changing- ,with increased experience. Vis- 
ion contributes some elements of the complex, while taste, 
touch, the muscular sense, and so on, furnish others." 

465. Particular notion to general notion.— It is a chief busi- 
ness of education to pass from distinctly perceived individual 
notions to clear general notions. — Pestalozzi. 

(a) Explain what is meant by individual notions, (b) By 
general notions, (cj Give an example of passing from indi- 
vidual notio7is to general notions, fdj Describe briefly a 
mode of teaching which violates PestalozzTs principle. 

(a) An individual notion means a percept or a group of per- 
cepts from an individual object. An apple is placed before 
me. I look at the apple. I handle it. I have a percept of 
that apple through feeling and sight. Both percepts refer to 
the one apple and therefore I have an individual notion of 
apple. An individual notion, then, is a notion of a thing 
gained through a sense medium or through several sense 
mediums. • 



316 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(b) General notion answers to the term concept while indi- 
vidual notion corresponds to the term percept. The general 
notion requires more work and experience on the part of the 
mind than the individual notion. General notion may be g-iv- 
en in a term which answers to a general name. A common 
noun is a general notion — corresponds to a general name 
while a proper noun refers to but one individual and is an in- 
dividual notion. 

(c) Take the example given in (a), an apple — ordinary red 
apple. Let us suppose this is first apple ever seen. From it 
comes the following ideas : 

of redness 

of size 

of roundness 

of appearance of blow end 

of smoothness, etc. 

The next day a green apple is seen. The ideas are the 
same, but redness is replaced by the idea of greenness. 

Next a small red apple is seen. Idea is again modified 
with regard to size. Some apples are smaller than others. 
Then a large apple is seen. Idea again modified. Ap- 
ples are large, small or moderate size. So we might go on 
with yellow apples, apples of other shapes (crow's egg). In 
the case of each apple presented, the mind recalled images of 
the other apples seen. Comparison and abstraction took 
place. Finally the child gets a general idea which is called 
up whenever apple is presented to the mind. This idea apple 
is a general notion and refers to no particular apple. 

(d) Rote teaching of definitions behind which there are no 
ideas is in direct opposition of Pestalozzi's idea, A child may 
glibly give definitions, say in grammar, and have no idea as 
to the meaning. 

466. Clearness in education. — IV/ia/ is meant by clearness in 
education ? 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 317 

Clearness in education is that stage of method in which the 
mind of the pupil apprehends the presented facts with clearness 
of mental vision ; the first formal step in method is clearness 
according to Herbart. The preparation as usually understood 
in the formal steps of instruction is a means to clearness. 

467. The meaning of terms: sensation, concept, image, induc- 
tion. — Explain a7id illtistrate the following terms: sensation; 
co7icept; mental image; inductive 7'easoning. 

A sensation is a simple mental 'state resulting from a phys- 
ical stimulus. While at work this afternoon, I became con- 
scious of a noise outside. I paid no attention to it until some 
one inquired if we kept pigeons. We found later that some 
children were drawing a box along the sidewalk at some dis- 
tance from the house. The first state of mind in which a noise 
was heard but its nature or cause unknown, was sensation. 

A concept is a general notion. It is a representation in our 
mind answering to a general name. The concept ot a noun is 
a word used as a name. 

A mental image is a revived percept. While reading the 
other day I came upon the name "Vineyard Haven." At 
once there came to mind the picture of the Haven as I had seen 
it one evening at sunset, when the different crafts were an- 
chored for the night. 

Inductive reasoning is the process of establishing a general 
truth through particular instances. The teacher wishes the 
pupil to know that an adverb is a word used to modify a verb 
or some other part of speech. She does not tell him this, but 
has on the board good sentences illustrating the adverb used 
to modify a verb, a participle, and adjective, or other adverb. 
The pupil finds these facts and at the close of the lesson gath- 
ers them into the form of the definition. When, however, he 
finds examples illustrating this definition he uses deductive 
reasoning. 

468. Active, mobile children. — "Some children are more ac- 
tive, or mobile — more suggestible; while others are more passive 



318 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

or receptive, less sug-g-estible. The impulsive, active children 
are alw^ays responsive, but always are in error in what they 
say and do; they are quick to g-eneralize, poor at making- dis- 
tinctions and they are characterized by fluidity of attention. 
The sensory or passive children are more troubled with physi- 
cal inertia, more contemplative, less active in learning- to act 
out new movements, less quick at taking- a hint, etc." (After 
Baldwin). Comment on this classification. Suggest ways of 
dealing with each of these types. 

I do not agree that impulsive, active children are always in 
error in what they say and do, are quick to g-eneralize, poor in 
making- distinctions and characterized by fluidity of attention. 
This desig-nates some impulsive, active children, but not all. 
I have one in my school at present who could be so character- 
ized. This one can naturally see just why I have had her re- 
peat the work of last year. Last year she g-ained absolutely 
nothing-. This year I hope to have her gain sufficient to be 
promoted in June. With the second characterization of passive 
children I agree. I have had until just now such a boy in my 
school. He likewise is repeating last year's work. His physi- 
cal inertia is so great that I could not hope to have him up to 
grade by June. He has therefore been removed to a special 
school where individual attention can be given in hope of 
bringing him to grade. 

469. Many-sided interest. — The aim of instruction, there- 
fore, is not the production of a many-sided knowledge, but of 
a many-sided interest. (Rein). 

Explain this statement, and give reasons for accepting or 
rejecting it. 

This statement means that if we have a many-sided interest 
we have a full development of all the powers of the mind and 
many-sided knowledge will result. Life is a process of learn- 
ing from beginning to end. We do not stop learning when we 
leave school. If our powers for learning have been cultivated 
interest will lead to the necessary knowledge. While if the 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 319 

aim has been for many-sided knowledg-e we may both lack the 
knowledge and the power for gaining- it. If this meaning is 
accepted I accept the statement in the above. 

470. Subjects suited to training of faculties. — Classify the ele- 
mentary studies with special reference to their respective val- 
ue's as suitable material for the several faculties. 

.The following classification is given on page 23 of Roark's 
A General Outline of Pedagogy (Hinds and Noble): 

{ Nature-study and geography. 

„ , ,.1 Obiect work in all branches. 

1. For sense-observation ■ 

Physiology. 

[ Drawing, clay modelings. 

f The fundamental facts in all branches. 
I Geography. 
I Physiology. 
1^ Spelling. 



2. For memory 



[ Arithmetic. 

^ -,-, . , , Technical grammar. 

3. For judgment <^ ^ 

I Nature-study — the "why" and "how" 

[ of common things. 

f Geography. 

4. For imagination \ History. 

j Literature. 

f Nature-study (curiosity). 

5. For the feelings. <( Reading and literature. 

I Biography and history. 

6. For the will — the same as for the feelings. 

471. Formal steps of instruction. — Name the for7nal steps of 
instruction, and tell why such processes are necessary in every 
complete act of instruction. 



320 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

These steps or processes are: 

1. Preparation. 

2. Presentation. 

3. Association. 

4. Generalization. 

5. Application. 

These five steps of the Herbartians are necessary in every 
complete act of instruction. We should lead from know^n to 
related unknown. A child has vague notions of many things. 
It is the work of preparation to bring these vague notions out 
of chaos and so combine them that they may form a foundation 
upon which knowledge may rest. The child's apperceptive 
powers are thus made ready or expectant for the presentation 
which is to follow. 

The second step or presentation is of vital importance. The 
subject of the lesson may be of the greatest importance to the 
child but unless this same subject is brought home to him by 
presentation its value is nothing to him. Although not well 
to do so, one might omit preparation, but it is impossible to 
have an act of instruction without presentation. 

Association is the third important step. The preparation 
has recalled past knowledge, the presentation haS' given new 
knowledge. It is the work of association to bind these into a 
whole that they may become a part of the child's mind and a 
basis of preparation for further acts of instruction. 

The fourth step is generalization. This step sums up or 
defines the knowledge gained. It puts this same knowledge 
into concise form; i. e., it classifies or defines knowledge gain- 
ed. After generalization the pupil is ready for deduction of 
general knowledge along similar lines. 

Application is the final step. It is another term for drill. 
The human mind is so constituted that if certain knowledge is 
not gone over again and again, that knowledge is soon replaced 
by other knowledge. Hence, the importance of drill in differ- 
ent forms until knowledge becomes a permanent mental pos- 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 321 

Educators differ about the number of formal steps. In such 
cases they combine two or more of the above. Dexter & Gar- 
lick's Psycholog-y gives but two, preparation and presenta- 
tion. With them presentation includes presentation proper as 
well as association, generalization and application. New 
York lesson-plans have 
I. Aim. 
II. Preparation. 

III. Presentation. 

IV. Application or drill. 

472. Marking pupils' papers. — In marking pupils' papers do 
you indicate what is right or what is wrong f Why? Do you 
use per ceiits or letters? Why? " 

The purpose of all marking, like Socratic questioning, is two- 
fold. The first aim is to show the child the existence of error 
in his answers ; and the second aim to cause him, through his 
own efforts to reach the truth. So the ultimate process re- 
quires the pupil to separate what is right from what is wrong 
— a matter of subtraction; and the teacher's place of marking 
should be whatever is most helpful in causing the individual 
pupil or the class to attain the .desired ends. Various plans 
may be justified. 

1. Sometimes indicate both wrong and right. The child 
then contrasts amount correctly done with amount incorrectly 
done. 

2. Sometimes mark only wrong. If children are becoming 
too self satisfied, too easily pleased with a poorly learned 
lesson, arouse the instinct of pugnacity by showing him his 
poor work. He "will strive to overcome weaknesses. See 
Talks to Teachers, p. 54. 

3. Sometimes mark only what is right. This gives en- 
couragement to the backward pupil and will often bring up a 
pupil who is laboring under discouragement. This is a good 
method to try with the dull, backward child of little brain but 



322 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

great industry. Such types are found in every school. They 
are the ones whom a,little praise does not spoil. Tactful praise 
of this kind, i. e., the bringing- out of good points, may also 
be means of converting the bad boy into the model pupil. 

I should use per cent whenever the work can easily be thus 
marked as in spelling and written arithmetic. It is an honest 
way and children can compute their own marks. They like 
to do this. This is a good place to use emulation. Children 
compare per cents from week to week and try to do better. 

In such studies as grammar, history, geography, oral arith- 
metic, etc., it is better to use letters. One cannot determine 
accurately the per cent in such studies as one has no exact 
standard of measurement. The mind gives judgment or de- 
cision in such studies as excellent, good, fair, unsatisfactory, 
poor. L/etters may be used signifying this classification. 

473. Home study: arguments for and against.— G^z'^^ arguments 
for and against the assignment of home study. 

Home study gives much aid in the education of the child. 
Its advantages are many. Herbart holds that education is 
development of moral character. To hold a child responsible 
for work done in a certain way and in a certain time outside 
of school hours is certainly developing his moral character. 
Home study also gives the child's mind a chance to become 
self-active in reflection upon subject-matter taught during 
school hours. If the child is made to strengthen in mind the 
knowledge gained in school during that day, his apperceptive 
powers will -certainly be greater than if the day's subject- 
matter is allowed to remain dormant in the mind until brought 
up again in the next day's lessons. Then, too, a child may 
understand thoroughly the subject-matter given during recita- 
tion, but unless it becomes a part of himself through reflection, 
he sustains a loss of power not otherwise to be secured. Home 
study is of especial aid in bringing to normal grade the dull 
or backward child. A boy in fourth grade was below grade 
in September. After two or three weeks' trial, the teacher 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 323 

notified the mother of state of affairs. Arrangement was made 
by which this child did a certain amount of work at home 
each night. By January the boy was fully up to grade and 
by May he was capable of doing the work of the next grade. 
This he was allowed to do. Work continued during the sum- 
mer and in September this boy entered the sixth grade. 

Home study has some disadvantages. The tired, ill, or 
nervous child is injured by home study. When home study 
keeps the child from recreation in the open air, it is an evil to 
be avoided. If the child has to do work in a poorly lighted 
room, no amount of mental gain can compensate for the injury 
to his eyes. In a poor district this consideration might be 
very important. 

In regard to what work should be assigned for home study, 
take this general rule : Assign what will review or reinforce 
what was taught during the day. Spelling, geography, his- 
tory, or special topics for collateral reading are suitable as- 
signments for the average pupils. Mathematics is not suitable 
home work for primary pupils. See sections 480-481, p. 240, 
Science of Education. 

A HIGH SCHOOL ANSWER FOR 473. 

Home study appears necessary on account of the stupendous 
task of giving to the individual any real command of his 
"spiritual inheritance." The amount of ground to be covered 
is so tremendous, the requirements of higher institutions so 
pressing, the examination system so exacting, that it is not 
within the realm of possibility to do all we are at present 
obliged to do in the school. It may be that our knowledge of 
the human mind and the possibilities of correlations are the 
underlying sources of the difficulty. Aside from all this, how- 
ever, it is advisable to assign home study for the sake of the 
development of self-activity and independent work so desirable 
in the individual. 

In the last few weeks I have, however, made a successful 
experiment in lessening home study. I believe that girls often 



324 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

pour over their books too long- from pure conscientiousness. I 
sug-gested to some five g-irls who averaged in the 90's on suc- 
cessive tests to leave the books in my subject in the schoolroom 
on Friday nights. I told them I should like to see what they 
could do without preparation on Monday morning-. I then ar- 
rang-ed to make Friday a kind of review day as far as the 
recitation was concerned. I sent a number of the most back- 
ward pupils to the board with questions written on slips of 
paper to bring- out "mooted points," did individual work with 
a few others, and allowed my stars to work on Monday's lesson 
which naturally had been assig-ned at the beginning- of the 
period. The experiment has worked beautifully. Everybody 
wants to g-et into the star group and leave books in their desks 
Friday night. Attention has increased, and the tone of the 
work is g-ood. 

To summarize the bad side of assignment of lessons I should 
say : 

(a) Attention to verbal presentation is often weak, because 
the child thinks, "Oh, it's all in the book anyway," which 
results in 

(b) Consequent waste of time. 

(c) Neglect of these opportunities for learning of practical 
matters which the home affords. 

(d) Danger of new study. 

474. Meaning of terms in pedagogics: natural punishment, etc. 

(a) What is meant by "-natural punishmentT'' Illustrate. 
Give an illustration of its 7ton- applicability. (4). (b). What 
did Rosseau 7nean by "-editcation according to nature?'' De- 
scribe or illustrate a method of instruction that you regard as 
not ''according to nature.'' (4). (c) What is meajit by ''in- 
ductive teaching?" Illustrate i7tductive teaching with refer- 
ence to the idea of a traytsitive- verb. Illustrate deductive 
teaching of the sa?ne idea. (6). 

(a) Epitome page 184, point 3 under section 365. General 
illustrations in sections 366 and 367. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 325 

The non-applicability of this punishment is shown in the 
familiar illustration from Rousseau when the child is made to 
sit or sleep in a room where the window was broken by the 
child. Pneumonia or death mig-ht be the result. Such re- 
sults are too serious a punishment for the violation in conduct. 
An illustration in school work can be found in permitting- a 
pupil to neg-lect his studies all through school in the hope that 
the pupil will realize his loss when he comes to be a man. In 
this case the penalty will work its effects at a time when the 
person punished is unable to make up for the neglect in school. 
Such natural punishment cannot be favored. A school illus- 
tration of its applicability is found in the case of a child who 
continues throwing- paper on the floor. The natural punish- 
ment is to make the child pick up all the pieces of paper. If 
a child refuses to do his work during- the school hours, the 
natural punishment would be to require him to do work while 
the other pupils are having- recreation. A tardy pupil re- 
ceives natural punishment when he is made to remain after 
school to make up the time lost in the morning-. See also Dex- 
ter and Garlick's Psycholog-y, 372. (b) Epitome, page 180, 
sections 362 and 363. A method of instruction not according- to 
nature may be illustrated by giving- instruction on corn. Sup- 
pose that the information is secured entirely from text-books 
or is given in the form of a lecture 'by the teacher. In neither 
case is any picture or other representative object presented for 
observation. Memory alone is exercised in securing- a knowl- 
edge about this plant. The lesson has failed to utilize as 
many senses as possible ; the pupils must depend upon their 
imagination ; and the whole lesson is lacking the element of 
interest. This lesson presented according to nature would 
have the object or its picture, and children should plant corn 
to observe its growth or visit a field where corn is growing. 

475. Meaning of terms in pedagogics. — Explain the terms (a) 
"■'learning throtigh self -activity ^ {b) "-thijigs before words ;" 
(c) '■'mental discipline;'" (d) ''harmoniotts development f (e) 
"■method-whole.'''' (lo). 



326 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(a) "Learning- through self-activity" means that the child 
shall be directed so that his own efforts may be the means of 
education. It involves a know^ledg-e of w^hat to study, how to 
study it, and where to find it. It presupposes attention to the 
directions of the teacher and interest in the matter to be mas- 
tered. Self-activity is a process tending- toward self-realiza- 
tion ; it is, in fact, the one safe way of attaining- the fullness 
of self-development which is the aim of all education. 

(b) "Thing's before words" is a concise way of expressing- 
the aim of realism. In the sixteenth century there was a 
movement ag-ainst Latin and Greek and in favor of French 
and German, g-eog-raphy, science and other real thing-s. It 
was arg-ued that the study of Latin and Greek was larg-ely a 
matter of memorizing- forms. The aim of the realists, there- 
fore, was to put pupils into touch with their environment. 
Another meaning- of this expression is seen in the inductive 
method. It is a process of learning- by experiment instead of 
by reading or listening-. Pupils handle natural things and 
use their own self-activity ; they get a knowledge of the real 
things, their properties, their uses, etc., before the principle 
or rule is put into words. 

(c) Discipline is that training of a faculty which gives it 
power to accomplish more than it would have been able to ac- 
complish without such discipline. So mental discipline means 
a training of the mind, with a view to accomplishment as 
expressed in the definition. 

(d) Harmonious development refers to a balanced develop- 
ment of all human powers. This development includes men- 
tal, moral and physical training. It is what is sometimes 
called a development of the whole man ; and it is the kind of 
training that Spencer requires for complete living. 

(e) A method-whole is an outline or plan of a certain amount 
of subject-matter which can be considered as a unit. The 
method-whole has been defined as an arrangement of matter 
that may be presented according to inductive-deductive method. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 327 

It has been explained as a process of passing- from particular 
notion to g-eneral notion. A method-whole may embody all of 
the work presented during- a month, as the drainage of New 
York State. Then that larg^er method-whole may be sub- 
divided into other method- wholes according- to the work of a 
week or a day. Thus the definition of an adverb is suitable 
for a method-whole ; but in that work there is another method- 
whole embodying the lesson on the verb. In short, it is an 
arrang-ement of subject-matter to suit the natural capacities 
of the class. 

476. Culture epochs. — Explain the meaning and application 
of culture epochs. 

The term culture epochs involves the idea that there is a 
parallelism between the development of each child and the his- 
torical development of the pupil or the race, and that in this 
parallelism we find the guiding- principles for the sequence of 
subjects or at least topics of instruction. This point of view 
is the basis for concentration as understood by Ziller and his 
authorities. The culture material found in religion, history, 
and literature forms the core of the curriculum. The sequence 
of the subject-matter is in accordance with the ag-es or epochs 
in the history of culture or civilization throug-h which the 
people to which this child belong-s has passed. — Baldwin, 248. 

477. Concert or rote recitation. — State your attitude toward 
concert recitation. 

The concert recitation has been designated the device of the 
lazy teacher. It is easier for a teacher to be satisfied with 
certain correct answers from the majority of the class than to 
take time and energy for individual tests. The advantages of 
the method are as follows : 

1. It is an easy means of stimulating- social interest 

and attention. 

2. Timid or backward pupils may be encouraged 

to answer with the others while such timid 
pupils would not do so well if they were called 
upon to answer alone. 



328 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

3. It is a saving" of time in rapid reviews or other 
exercises of that nature. 

478. Concert recitation. — faj From the psychological pomt of 
view what advantage and what disadvantage is there in rote 
or concert recitation ? (b) To what extent a7id ijt what sub- 
jects would you make use of such an exercise? Give reasons. 

(a) Rote or concert recitations are usually used as memory 
drills. They presuppose that the thing- reproduced has been 
apprehended and kept in memory. Nov^^ we g"ive exercise to 
the third stag^e of every complete act of memory or the stag-e of 
bringing- to memory or reproduction. If concert recitation is 
used as memory drill in this manner it is perfectly legitimate 
as the words given by children correspond to ideas already in 
child's mind. Where such work is used to fix ideas for first 
time in child's mind it is wholly at fault psychologically. 
It is in opposition to the principle that the mind should gain 
through the senses its knowledge of everything external to 
itself. The words said do not correspond to concepts in child's 
mind. 

(b) I should use concert work where I wished for repetition 
for the purpose of exercising memory and yet had not time to 
give each child an opportunity to recite. Herbart recommends 
repetition of this kind. It is well to use concert work also for 
variety. Child grows tired of always doing things in same 
way. If we are sure the ideas are behind the words, it pro- 
motes self-activity. It is well to use it to overcome diffidence 
on part of child. In reading for expression I find that children 
will imitate good expression if allowed to give in concert where 
a failure would result if the same recitation must be given 
alone. In reading Shakspere I have been led to find where 
diffidence was first conquered in concert work. Concert is 
useful in promoting self-activity and strengthening memory in 
the recitation of memory gems. Concert recitation likewise 
gives social stimulus. Children like to work together in this 
way. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 329 

479. General method applied to grammar. — Briefiy outlijte a 
lesson to distinguish predicate noun and object noun accorditig 
to the Herbartian view of method. 

I. Aim. To disting-uish predicate noun and object noun. 

II. Preparation. 

1. Define sentence. Illustrate. 

2. Define subject. Illustrate. 

3. Define predicate. Illustrate. 

4. Define noun. Illustrate. 

III. Presentation. Have these sentences written on board. 

1. Longfellow wrote poems. 

2. Longfellow was a poet. 

3. We like school. 

4. This is a school. 

5. Labor disgraces no man. 

6. You will be a man. 

7. Columbus discovered America. 

8. Lincoln became president. 

9. We like g-rammar. 

10. Some nouns are objects. 
The preparation reviewed and impressed subject and predi- 
cate and noun. Without further preparation we can begin the 
presentation of this lesson. Have first sentence read. Cover 
word poems. How many parts in the sentence not covered ? 
There are two parts. Taking- those two words is the sentence 
complete or incomplete? It is incomplete. What completes the 
sentence? Poems. This shows that the sentence has a third 
part Read the second sentence and proceed as in the first 
sentence. Pupils see that the second sentence has a third part 
in the word poet. In this second sentence to what part of the 
sentence does the word poet refer? If this does not bring- the 
answer the teacher must question to show that poet means the 
same as Longfellow. Give name predicate noun. Read fourth 
sentence and bring- out the thought that school means the same as 
the subject this. Give name predicate noun. Read sixth sen- 



330 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

tence and show ag^ain that the third part completes the predicate 
and means the same as the subject. Give name predicate noun 
and ask for definitions of a predicate noun. Return to first sen- 
tence and see if the third part means the same as the subject. It 
does not. It will be seen that the word poems completes the verb 
wrote the same as the word poet completes the verb was, but 
there is a distinction between the two parts, the one belonging- 
to the subject and the other not belonging to the subject. 
Poems is an object complement. Treat sentence five and 
sentence seven in the same way, giving- the name object com- 
plement in each. Ask for definitions and distinctions. 

IV. Application. Sentences 8, 9, 10 as reviewed in first 
seven. Have children construct sentences illustrating- object 
nouns and predicate nouns. 

480. Things vs. words. — (a) What is the meaning of the 
maxirn, ''■Things rather than woj^dsT'' (b) Discuss, as bearing 
upon this maxim, the following quotation: "The truth is, that 
the knowledge of external nature and the sciences which that 
knowledg-e requires or includes, are not the g-reat or the fre- 
quent business of the human mind. Whether we provide for 
action or for conversation, whether we wish to be useful or 
pleasing-, the first requisite is the relig-ious and moral knowl- 
edg-e of rig-ht and wrong- ; the next is an acquaintance with 
the history of mankind." — Dr. Johnson. 

(a) It is the appeal for real knowledge which is to be gained 
throug-h the child's own actions, truths which the child can 
understand and use. A little girl repeated for me a poem in 
German. She did not know the meaning; she only had the 
words. 

"This antithesis between words and things which constant- 
ly occurs in educational literature, from the sixteenth century 
onward, is not very exact. Sometimes the antithesis so ex- 
pressed is really between the material world and abstract 
ideas. In this case the study of things which affect the senses 
is opposed to the study of grammar, logic, rhetoric, etc. Some- 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 331 

times by words is understood the expression of ideas in differ- 
ent lang-uag-es, and by things the ideas themselves. This is 
the antithesis of those who depreciate linguistic study, and 
say that it is better to acquire fresh ideas than various ways 
of expressing- the same idea. Of course it may be shown that 
linguistic study does more for us than merely giving us var- 
ious ways of expressing ideas, but I will not here discuss the 
matter. Besides the disputants who use one or other of these 
antitheses, many of those who find fault with the attention 
bestowed on words in education, mean generally words learned 
by rote, and not connected with ideas at all." Quick, Educa- 
tional Reformers, p. 314 of Kellogg's edition. 

(b) The quotation is not in harmony with the maxim. It 
places first the religious and moral knowledge of right and 
wrong, abstract truths which do not appeal to a child, and 
are, if dwelt upon, distasteful to him. But when these truths 
are discovered through "an acquaintance with the history of 
mankind," or through the "knowledge of external nature and 
the sciences" — real things — they are attractive and welcome. 

481. Learning defined. — (a) Explain this rule of Jacotofs : 
''The pupil must learn some one thing and connect everything 
else with it.'' (b) What is properly meant by ''learning''' a 
lesson in geography or history? By ''learning" a tune? By 
"learni7ig" a stanza of poetry? By "learning" to be pinic- 
tual? 

(a) There is no such thing as an is3lated fact or idea. It 
must be associated with something else. Correlation of sub- 
jects, which received a considerable amount of attention, was 
a branch of this rule. The "Compromise of 1850" means lit- 
tle to the pupil if he is not acquainted with the history of our 
country from the first appearance of the slavery question to 
the admission of California into the union, (b) A lesson is 
learned in geography or history when a pupil, in his own 
language, is able to give the facts in their right relations. A 
tune is learned when a pupil or class is able to give it with 



332 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

ease and expression. It may be with or without the copy. A 
stanza of poetry is learned when the exact words of the author 
can be given without aid. Learning- to be punctual means a 
reptition of the effort until it becomes a habit, when it is ac- 
complished with ease. 

482. Aims in penmanship. — What are the desirable aims iii 
penmanship? 

Ease, leg-ibility and speed are three worthy aims. These 
are secured by maintaining- proper position of the body, the 
pen and the paper ; by practice of muscular movement in place 
of the cramped fing-er movement ; and by following- movement 
exercises instead of set copies. 

483. Principles underlying habits. — Name two priticiples un- 
derlying the formation of habits. Illustrate the application of 
each of these principles. 

Two principles underly ingthe formation of habits are plastic- 
ity and reg-ularity of repetition. Habit is a fixed tendency 
to act, feel, or think in a certain way under certain conditions. 
In order to form a fixed tendency, we must g-ive this fixed 
tendency exercise by repeating- again and ag-ain and yet again 
that thought, act or feeling we wish to become a fixed tendency. 
I wish to wean children from the incorrect pen holding habit 
to the correct. My first lesson teaches the children how to 
hold pen. My second how to hold pen and use pen in that 
position. Each following lesson it is my duty to see that child 
always holds pen correctly. If this is done, in time there will 
be a fixed tendency to hold the pen correctly. If my lessons 
are a week apart I find the hand forgets its tendency more 
readily than if I had my lessons every day. I find five 
minutes each day devoted to writing forms better writers than 
twenty-five minutes a week in one lesson devoted to subject. 
Then I conclude it is better to have frequent regular short in- 
tervals than regular long intervals. 

484. Induction, deduction. — Distinguish between inductiojt 
and deduction in teaching and state your views as to the 
appropriate uses of each. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 333 

Induction is a process of reasoning which establishes a 
general rule, definition or principle from the knowledge of 
particular cases. I wish to teach that a noun is a word used 
as a name. I write five sentences containing nouns. I ques- 
tion. How is such a word used ? It is the name of . I 

continue until all nouns have been so treated. Children give 
words used as names. At end of lesson tell children what 
words used as names are called. Children learn definition. 
A noun is a word used as a name. This is the process of 
teaching noun by induction. 

Deduction is the process of reasoning by giving a general 
rule, definition or principle and applying it to particular 
cases. 

I give the definition. A noun is a word used as a name. 
Children learn. I write five sentences on blackboard. Child- 
dren find words used as names and call them nouns? This is 
teaching noun by process of deduction. 

Induction is the process of finding out principles for one's 
self. It is experimental. It is speculative. Deduction is the 
process of taking opinions of others and verifying or applying 
those opinions. 

Both kinds of reasoning are useful. Every well taught 
lesson should embrace both. Children should be taught by 
inductive -deductive process wherever possible. That is, 
teacher should by questioning, etc., elicit general rule from 
children and then give them plenty of opportunities to apply 
their own rules. The first part is inductive ; the second, de- 
ductive. 

485. Correlation, variety, induction, miscellaneous or simultan- 
eous questioning, concrete methods. — State (do not merely refer 
to) editcational principle or principles tipon ivhich each of the 
following methods or devices may be defended: — 

(a) Uniting in one lesson history and geography. 

(b) Having a lesson in arithmetic (grammar grade) followed 
by one in music or in reading. 



334 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(c) Presenting- or having the children present a number of 
sentences, each containing a pronoun and its antecedent, be- 
fore formulating the grammatical rule about the agreement of 
the pronoun with its antecedent. 

(d) Teaching by giving questions to the class and requiring 
answers from one or more individuals designated after each 
question is put. 

(e) Choosing the object rather than a picture of the object in 
a nature study lesson. 

(a) The principle of correlation is founded upon the law of 
association of ideas and apperception; briefly stated, it is that 
quality of the human mind which makes it easier to keep a 
fact in a group of kindred related facts than to hold it as an 
isolated idea Correlation usually refers to association be- 
tween groups as, the Delaware is a river in N. J. (geogra- 
phy) ; Washington crossed the Delaware (history). Tq have 
both these facts at the same time helps the memory. 

(b) Voluntary attention develops out of involuntary atten- 
tion. In small children the capacity to attend to one subject 
is limited to a few moments. If pursued longer fatigue is ex- 
perienced. Therefore variety in the program of studies is a 
psychological necessity. The principle is, therefore, variety. 

(c) The human mind is of such a nature that it is obliged to 
proceed from the "known to the related unknown." Princi- 
ple : induction. 

(d) Clear localization in consciousness is the first great ne- 
cessity of securing memory. If the question is put after the 
child's name is called, this localization of attention is often 
missed. Instead of getting the question in mind the child 
thinks, "Oh, I'm not the one this time." Simultaneous ques- 
tions preferred. 

(e) The principle of "multiple sense impression" insists 
that an idea is best held in consciousness, when it is carried 
over as many roads as possible. To touch, handle, taste, 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 335 

smell and see an object will be four times as useful to the 
memory of it as it would be to simply see it. Concrete meth- 
ods require the thing- itself whenever possible. 

486. Individual notions, general notions. — Define and illus- 
trate each. 

(a) Individual notions are mental images, or ideas conveyed 
by sense impressions into consciousness. For instance, when 
a boy from the slums first g^oes into the country and sees a 
milking-stool he receives an impression which we call an in- 
dividual notion. 

(b) A g-eneral notion is the resultant idea, formed in the 
mind by analyzing- many individual ideas of the same class, 
all of which have points of similarity. 

(c) For example, the city child may have little more than 
individual notion of a rose. If taken to the country or into a 
rose-g-arden, he will soon compare red roses and white roses, 
little roses and big roses and white roses, and finally he 
will attain an abstracted notion which the word rose will call 
to his mind. This idea we call a g-eneral notion. 

(d) My study of German was beg-un under a master of the 
classics. I was plung-ed immediately into the study of Schil- 
ler's Bell. Every word, practically, had to be looked up in 
the dictionary. For years the very mention of this master- 
piece g-ave me a feeling- of disgust. In order tog-et any appre- 
ciation of the poem, I should have had an introduction not only 
of the individual notions comprised under the term vocabu- 
lary, g-rammar and so forth, but some individual notions of 
German life, custom, bell-making- and so forth. 

487. Self-realization explained; 

Self-realization may be defined as consciousness of harmo- 
nious development. In order to arrive at this goal, we must 
emphasize the two great principles of education, apperception 
and self-activity. In dealing with apperception we shall be 
obliged to consider the individual or subject of apperception; 
and the subject-matter to be apperceived. The study of the 



336 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

individual will lead us to the consideration of many useful 
physiological laws, such as the doctrine of interest, the place 
of effort, the necessity of proceeding- from the particular to the 
general, the culture epoch theory, and we shall thus work in 
harmony with the nature of the mind. The consideration of 
the subject-matter of instruction will help us to avoid one- 
sidedness. In order to attain true development all the powers 
of the mind must be exercised. We must, therefore, provide 
a curriculum rich in scientific, literary, aesthetic, institution- 
al and religious instruction. 

But we must never forget that these provisions will all be of 
no avail unless we secure the self-activity of the subject of our 
education. We can lead a horse to water, but we cannot make 
him drink, however good our intention, however fine the 
water, if he have no thirst. The interest of the pupil must be 
aroused in order to realize that happy relation between teach- 
er and pupil, in which the activity of both is directed toward 
the same end. 

488. Principles of education. — State what you consider the 
fundamental' prmciples of education. 

Read Chapter IV. There you will find attention, interest, 
apperception and self-activity under principles of education. 
There are other maxims or axioms but see if all of the follow- 
ing may not be considered under the four mentioned. 

1. Observation before reasoning. 

2. The concrete before the abstract. 

3. Facts before definitions or principles. 

4. Processes before rules. 

5. From the particular to the general. 

6. From the simple to the complex. 

7. From the known to the related unknown. 

8. Learn to do by doing. 

9. Self-activity is the source of knowledge. 

10. Never tell a child what he can find out for him- 
self. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 337 

11. One thing at a time. 

12. From the empirical to the rational. 

13. Attention on the part of the learner is the con- 

dition of acq_uiring- knowledge. 

14. The mind must gain through the senses its knowl- 

edge of everything external to itself. 

15. There is a natural order in which the powers of 

the mind should be exercised, and the corre- 
sponding kinds of knowledge taught. 

16. The mind can exercise only a definite amount 

of energy at any one time. This amount varies 
with age, natural ability, and degree of de- 
velopment. 

489. Discovery vs. being told. — It is better for a child to dis- 
cover than to be told. 

(a) Give two reasons (drawn from psychology ) for the truth 
of this statement, {b) Illustrate a possible exceptio?i. 

(a) Self-activity and interest are the two psychological rea- 
sons for the above statement. By self-activity is meant that 
form of self-direction which finds its primal impulse within 
itself. Every normal child is full of physical and mental ac- 
tion. If we can simply surround him with proper stimuli, his 
powers will develop largely without further trouble on our 
part. Applying this fact to education, we find experimentally 
that there is no real development without a great deal of this 
enlisted activity on the part of the child. We cannot arouse 
it, however, unless we secure his interest. By interest, in the 
psychological sense, we mean the "feeling side of appercep- 
tion." In other words, he must feel that he wants to know or 
to do what we are trying to teach him to do. Spencer says, 
let the child face the difficulty before the solution is presented. 
He will then be interested in the solution. 

(b) The exception to this rule is also found in the nature of 
the child's mind. The power of attention in young children 
is limited in time to a few moments. If the child is allowed 

23 



338 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

to puzzle over a difficulty too long-, discourag-ement sets in, and 
interest is destroyed. For instance, if the meaning of a Ger- 
man sentence is not discovered, because of a forgotten idiom, 
there are tv^o reasons why it is often best to tell it at once. It 
might incur too serious a loss of time to send the child to a large 
dictionary and even if this were not the case, it might divert 
his interest from some more important line of work, as the en- 
joyment of metrical form or rythm. 
Another answer to 489. 

(a) The following two principles of education based on psy- 
chology are reasons for the truth of the above statement. 

1. The mind should gain through the senses its knowledge 
of everything external to itself. 

2. There is a natural order in which the powers of the mind 
should be exercised and new objects of knowledge gained. 

Both mean that all knowledge gained is based on sensation 
as sensation is the mind's only means of gaining a basis of 
knowledge of outside things. Then upon sensation we build. 

(b) A possible exception is a case from which the result will 
be harmful and beyond repair. Ex. A child must not learn 
the result of exposure to disease results in the taking of the 
disease. Tell him and warn him. 

Another answer on self-activity presents another phase of it. 
Following is the question : "^ teacher must not attempt to do 
what can be done by the pupil for himself.'" E.x plain clearly 
in %vhat respects this rule must be observed in dealing both 
with senior and junior pupils. 

Doing for the pupil- what he can do for himself interferes di- 
rectly with that end most sought for, namely, self-activity. 
The pupil's sense of power to act breeds desire to act, and 
any hindrance of it blunts the desire and stultifies the power. 
Matters of form which the junior pupil needs to learn are part 
of the mental equipment of the senior and no more to be done 
by the teacher than you would try to teach a healthy child of 
twelve how to walk, simply because you had not been there 
when he learned. For instance, a freshman class comes to me 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 339 

with but a general idea that a paragraph talks about one side 
of a subject. I am working for unity. We take a paragraph, 
preferably expository and propositional. We read it and de- 
cide upon its theme. The children then select the sentence 
which first clearly expresses that theme and learn its name, — 
topic sentence. Then we find what relation every other sen- 
tence bears to this; what words in each carry back, directly or 
indirectly to it; and notice how the closing sentence applies or 
comes back to, as a summing up the subject of the paragraph. 
Having so done, we take a similar theme admitting of practi- 
cally the same treatment, and with books open, and the general 
plan formed from the preceding study before us, we construct a 
paragraph on this model; repeating the process till the idea of 
unity is firmly established. Then the pupils can do that for 
themselves, and we are ready for the next step. Now my 
seniors are supposed to have the technique of the paragraph 
mastered, the work with them is of guidance more than of 
form. In studying Burke, the question of topic sentences 
merely comes up when a special discussion of it may explain 
more clearly his point, or when his masterly statement of his 
theme may serve as a model for their work. 

In working out junior essays we often work out an entire 
plan in class, showing how to pass from part to part, and how 
to sum up. The seniors suggest various means of approach- 
ing- a subject, various points of view, and my work with them 
is more in the nature of individual consultation on difficulties 
than of class direction as to exact work. 

490. Reading : difificulties and remedies. — What difficulties are 
likely to be found in a selection for grammar grade reading? 
Tell how such difficulties ?nay be removed. 

Every selection in reading will have some of the following 
difficulties : 

1. New or difficult words. 

2. Allusions. 

3. Figures of speech. 



340 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. Words, phrases, or clauses out of the natural 

order. 

5. Ellipses, especially of verbs. 

6. Words used under poetic license in advanced 

g-rammar g^rades. 

Manner of removing- difficulties in the order enumerated. 

1. For teaching- words, see sections 173 and 500. 

2-3. Teacher must be prepared in advance to explain v^hat- 
ever the child cannot find for himself. For allusions, give 
reference to pupils, if possible, and encourage them to look up 
the answers. 

4. Lead pupils to arrange words, phrases, or clauses, in 
natural order; i. e., the order they would use in speaking. 
Then see why inverted or peculiar order is used in the selec- 
tion. Is it for emphasis or climax ? 

5. Use manner similar to that in 4; i. e. , lead pupils to dis- 
cover contrast of elliptical expression and full expression. 
Principle of self-activity of pupils. 

6. Teacher must explain and then have pupils notice such 
uses thereafter. 

491. Pronunciation of shrimp. — Explain in detail how to se- 
cure the correct pronunciation of shrimp and similar words. 

(a) By use of the phonogram method of dealing with words. 
Divide shrimp as follows : sh-rimp, give drill on rimp, then 
practice sh the teacher giving- the model and the children 
imitating- it. As soon as they can sound sh correctly put the 
word together and require the pronunciation of the word several 
times. Treat glad in the same way, g-lad. 

(b) The mouth is open to the extent that a lead pencil might 
be inserted; the tongue is flat or nearly so upon the floor of 
the mouth and is slightly pressed ag-ainst the front teeth of the 
lower jaw; as the sound is being given the mouth becomes 
partly closed. The sound comes largely from the throat. The 
palate enters largely into the process of giving the long sound 
of a. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 341 

Italian a the mouth is quite well opened and the opening- is 
nearly round. The tong-ue is aloof from the floor of the mouth, 
being- entirely free from every thing-. The sound is made 
largely by the throat and farther down than the long- a sound. 

Sound of b. The tongue is flat upon the floor of the mouth 
and the mouth is closed. The sound is produced by a sudden 
outburst or opening of the mouth. The lips enter largely into 
the formation of the sound. 

S as in sin. Mouth partly open. Tong-ue aloof from floor 
of mouth and extends near to the opening between the teeth. 
The sound is produced by forcing- the breath from off the end 
of the tongue through the teeth. 

Th as in this. Mouth partly open. Tongue against upper 
front teeth. At beginning of sound tongue remains stationary 
after which it suddenly drops down producing- the final element 
in the sound. The sound is made entirely by the tong-ue and 
teeth. 

(c) I should suggest dividing the words into syllables and 
pronounce each syllable after spelling- it. Some preparatory 
work on syllabication should be given, however. 

492. Economy of expression. — -State and illustrate briejly the 
points of a lesson inte7ided to teach the following principles of 
composition : 

" Use the fewest words needed to express the meaning ijttend- 
edy {lo). 

This principle requires clear thinking- and clear writing-. 
From the writer, it demands precision and perspicuity of style •, 
for the reader, it means ease in understanding what is written. 
In other words it says. Speak or write so that you can be most 
easily understood. 

Following is a lesson-plan: 

1. Illustrative specimens having historical setting. 
"Don't give up the ship." 

"We have met the enemy and they are ours." 
"England expects every man to do his duty." 
"Unconditional surrender." 



342 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

2. Conforming to the rule. Change the following to 

simple sentences : 

(a) Do you consider that this rule is impossible? 

(b) The license which you have secured is valid 
for three years. 

(c) You will be pleased when you pass the ex- 
aminations. 

(d) The lesson is long but it is not difficult. 

(e) Lincoln was born in Kentucky. He lived in 
Illinois. He became President. 

3. Application by studying Gettysburg Speech. 

4. Practice in writing and speaking. 
493. Composition criticised. 

FROM TADPOLE TO FROG. 

In the spring of the year, the frog lays her eggs, in the inside 
of the egg is a black speck, and in two or three weak little 
tadpoles come out of them, they have a round head, and a tail 
on one side, they are one half a inche long, they have pink 
threads by the side of the neck, then they begin to grow and 
grow, then two legs come out in the back of them, they join on 
to the tail, and in a few more days they get two more legs in 
the back of their eyes, then lungs begin to grow in the inside 
if them and the gills begin to shrinks and shrinks till the 
tadpoles lungs are all grown then the gills shrink all away, 
then there come another change the tadpoles tails shrinks and 
shrinks till at last it all shrinks away then the tadpoles is a 
perfect frog! If the mother frog lays her eggs in summer they 
will grow very soon, but if the mother lays her eggs in winter 
it will take an awful long time before they grow. 

(a) State th7^ee classes of fatilts in the above composition, and 
state at least one probable canse of each fault, (j). {b) A 
teacher corrects the mistakes and returns the composition to be 
rewritte?!. State with reasons, what fatilts you find iji this 
jnethod. (^). {c) Describe in detail how you would ijnprove 
coinpositio7t work along the lines of sentence construction, (^). 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS ANiJ ANSWERS 343 

(a) The first fault is in words; spelling-, choice, concord. 
The cause is lack of effectual drill. The second fault is in 
sentences; capitalization, ag-reement of subject and predicate. 
It is evident that the child has not had sufficient practice in 
studying- simple models and in constructing- simple sentences. 
He does not know the sentence as a unit of composition. The 
third fault is in punctuation. This fault may be associated 
with the lack of knowledge of the kind of sentences from form 
of expression and also from a lack of knowledge of the sen- 
tence as a unit. 

(b) This correction by the teacher, deprives the child of the 
rig-ht of participating- in a discussion of the general errors ; it 
removes all possibility of self-activity at the time of the correc- 
tion; and it puts the responsibility for correctness upon the 
teacher unless the teacher will take time afterwards to explain 
the difficulties to the children and to drill them upon the pre- 
vailing- errors. 

(c) Drill upon sentence structure should go back to the ele- 
ments of the simple sentence. Drill first upon the simple 
sentence with modified subject and predicate. The one aim 
of this kind of exercise is the concord or agreement of subject 
and predicate. The sense of hearing will enable the child to 
detect ordinary errors in this concord long- before he may be 
able to understand reasons. The next step involves a modified 
subject, and this practice will g-ive the pupil an opportunity to 
use and to understand such modifiers as a, an, this, these, 
etc. The third step in the drill embodies the modified predi- 
cate. Pupils make many mistakes in -not being- able to dis- 
ting-uish the-adverb modifier from the adjective modifier. The 
fourth step in the drill upon the simple sentence is a process 
of substituting phrase modifiers for word modifiers. It is a 
means of enlarging- the vocabulary of the pupil. In all these 
exercises particular attention is given to capitalization, spell- 
ing- and punctuation. This mastery of the simple sentence 
may lead to a consideration of compound sentences and com- 
plex sentences. In the former we have simply one more simple 



344 ME-THODS IN EDUCATION 

sentence properly connected; in the latter we have word or 
phrase modifiers expanded into clauses. These last two kinds 
of sentences do not involve many difficulties in capitalization, 
spelling- or punctuation, provided that these three essentials of 
correct writing- are understood in relation to the simple sen- 
tence. 

494. Composition criticised. 

PUFF AND THE BABY. 

When Puff was near the 

baby here would wig-g-le 
out of anyone's arms. 

One day the baby was 
lying on the sofa, 

sleeping. Puff always went 
Nearer, and, nearer 

till he touched her nose. 
The baby was crazy 

for Puff. Puff was a little 
terrier. Puff had long 

hair. 
( Written by a pupil of the third school year.) 

(a) State three classes of faults in the above composition, (j) 
{b) A teacher corrects the mistakes and returns the composition 
to be rewritten. State, with reasons, what faults you find in 
this method. {4). [c) How wotild you lead pupils to avoid each 
of the faults stated in answer to {a) ? (6). 

(a) The faults in this composition may be classed under 
structure or form, arrangement and punctuation. 

(b) See (b) under 493. 

(c) The fault in regard to structure requires a study of simple 
models in prose and poetry. The writer of this little selection 
has a confused idea of form. A few models in prose and in 
poetry will impress the proper form under the law of contrast. 
The second fault, that is, arrangement, requires more practice 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 345 

in the use of outlines. The analysis of a short prose model 
showing- the author's plan or outline will lead the child to see 
that the author should have some definite plan in mind. While 
much cannot be expected from a third year pupil, still this 
practice in making- a plan must have its effects in correcting- 
the errors of arrang-ement as noticed in this selection. The 
matter of punctuation will be remedied as soon as the child 
is able to improve the structure and the arrang-ement of this 
composition. 

495. Meaning of words": fortify. — Illustj^ate two ways in which 
a teacher can lead pupils to understand, without using formal 
dejinitions, the meaning of the word fortify. 

The easiest method to make children understand the word 
fortify is to study it in its connection in a text-book. The word 
is likely to be found in the regular reading- lessons in history 
or in g-eog-raphy. In all of these instances I should use a 
picture or pictures to give children the idea of the size, the 
shape, and the structure of a fort. The second means of teach- 
ing this word is by etymology. Its formation shows the mean- 
ing, to make strong. Then as an ap plication compare fortify 
with fortress, effort, comfort, and force. See 173 and 500. 

496. Methods : development lesson in reading. 

METHODS. 

Time, 3 hours. 
1. The Chambered Nautilus — Holmes. 

(Suggested by looking at one of those chambered sea shells 
called the Pearly Nautilus.) 

Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee, 1 

Child of the wandering sea, 2 

Cast from her lap forlorn ! 3 

From thy dead lips a clearer note is born 4 

Than ever Triton blew from wreathed horn ! 5 

While on mine ear it rings, 6 

Through the deep caves of thought, I hear a voice that sings:— 7 



346 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 8 

As the swift seasons roll ! 9 

Leave thy low-vaulted past ! 10 

Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 11 

Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast 12 

Till thou at length art free, 13 

Leaving- thine outgrown shell, by life's unresting- sea ! 14 

Ask and answer questions to bring out the meaning of each 
of the following: (a) wandering sea (2); (b) Triton blew from 
wreathed horn (2); (c) swift seasons roll (2); (d) thy low-vaulted 
past (2). 

State syntax of each of the following words, and ask and 
answer questions designed to make clear the syntax of each of 
them: (e) cast, line 3; (f) it, 1. 6; (g) thee, 1. 8. 

(a) T. What has been found on the shores of the Azores that 
led Columbus to believe there was land to the west ? P. Bodies 
of men having a strange color, and branches from trees. 

T. Have you heard of people getting messages in bottles 
picked up at sea? P. Yes. A few weeks ago such a bottle 
was found on the Maine coast. 

T. Can we then truthfully speak of the sea as * 'wandering' ' ? 
P. Yes. 

(b) T. Who was Triton? P. Son of Neptune. 

T. Why is he represented as blowing a horn ? P. Because 
he was Neptune's trumpeter. 

T. What kind of horn did he use? P. Some writers say 
he used a shell. 

T. How was the horn adorned? P. With a wreath. 

(c) T. Why did the writer use the word "roll" in speaking 
of seasons? P. Because they move one after the other with- 
out worry or noise. 

T. Why are they spoken of as "swift seasons"? P. Be- 
cause they seem to pass so quickly. 

(d) T. A voice from the dead lips of Nautilus says to the 
poet, "Build thee more stately mansions, O my Soul!" and 



TYPICAL QUKSTIONS AND ANSWERS 347 

later, '4eave thy low-vaulted past." -"What do you think this 
means to the author ? P. I think that it meant that he should 
turn from the small, narrow life of the past and plan better, 
higher deeds. 

(e) "Cast" is a simple past participle, passive. It is like 
an adjective, because it modifies the noun "child," and like a 
verb because it names an action and is modified by an ad- 
verbial phrase. 

T. What is the use of the word "cast"? P. It describes 
child. 

T. How, then, is it used? P. It is used as an adjective. 

T. What is the use of the phrase "from the lap"? P. It 
tells "cast" where. 

T. It is what kind of a phrase? P. An adverbial phrase. 

T. If "cast" is modified by an adverbial phrase, it is like 
what part of speech? P. A verb. 

T. How, then, is the participle "cast" used? P. As an 
adjective and as a verb. 

(f ) ' 'It" is in the nominative case, subject of the verb "ring-s. ' ' 
T. What is it that "rings" on mine ear? P. "It." 

T. What, then, is the case of the word "it"? P. Nomi- 
native, subject of the verb "rings". 

(g) The word "thee" is in the objective case, objective of the 
preposition "for" understood. 

T. Why does the poet say more stately mansions are to be 
built? P. For thee. 

T. What, then, is the case of "thee"? P. Objective case, 
object of the proposition "for" understood. 

497. Composition: method oi teaching.— Ou I /me an approved 
method of teaching composition. Make your outline cover prep- 
aration, presentation, correctioti, etc. 

The two points which we shall keep in mind are (a) the 
paragraph and (b) the series of paragraphs showing logical 
unity or continuity. 



348 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

I. Aim. Teaching- the writing- of the paragraphs. This 
we shall divide into several lessons. For the preparation of 
lesson I talk about g-reat writers. Why have they written ? 
We shall find that they had a desire to instruct or please 
others by their written thoughts and ideas. On what occa- 
sions may children desire to please or instruct others by their 
writing-? This question leads the pupils to begin to think and 
they will soon see that the compositions written in school may 
be a source of pleasure. Thus that will arouse a desire to 
know how to write in order to please others. This interest 
comes into existence for each child. 

The presentation of this lesson may consist of the study of a 
model. Care should be taken in the selection of the model. 
The one to be impressed in this exercise is that the topical 
sentence must be easily recognized. All other sentences in the 
paragraph must be so related as to prove the topic sentence. 
Lead children to find the topic sentence in the paragraphs and 
then trace the relation of each sentence to this topic sentence. 

A second lesson may be introduced and brief references to 
the work of the preceding lesson. Then take up new para- 
graphs for discussion. 

The third lesson may have for its aim to construct a topic 
sentence for a paragraph. A quick review of the two preced- 
ing lessons will make a good preparation. With the intention 
of taking bells as a topic begin to arouse thought by a few 
questions regarding the uses of bells. The children will 
readily mention church bells, factory bells, school bells, elec- 
tric bells, etc. The various kinds will easily lead to a topic 
sentence, such as; Bells have many uses. 

A fourth lesson may be a writing of a paragraph on the topic 
sentence, Bells have many uses. Before asking children to 
write what those uses are, try to impress them with the neces- 
sity of care in writing, in spelling and in punctuation. Do 
not give too much attention in this lesson to the uses of bells 
as brought out in the preceding lesson, but leave this matter 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 349 

largely to the pupils so that each may see his originality in 
the scope of any nature of treatment. 

A jBfth lesson has for its aim to correct paragraphs written 
in the preceding lesson. The preparation will put the import- 
ant points before the class by reviewing the meaning of a topic 
sentence, its use in the paragraph and the necessity of having 
the other sentences united in thought with it. Write the topic 
sentence on the board. Each child then compares his topic 
sentence with the written copy. Then have each child read 
his composition to test it for unity in answer to the question, 
Does this sentence prove that bells have many uses? Have 
child read paragraphs a second time for punctuation marks 
and capitalization. Have him see, too, if each sentence is 
expressed in the best possible form. The third reading is for 
the purpose of spelling every word correctly. Use dictionary 
to correct errors in spelling. In these three readings note 
that only one important principle is kept in the mind of the 
pupil during each reading. The number of readings in cor- 
rection will depend upon the knowledge of the child and upon 
the work in composition of the previous grades. If the child- 
ren write one paragraph well, the following lessons will deal 
with the sequence of the paragraphs in working for the unity 
of one paragraph. Pupils get their first lesson in the sequence 
of sentences and when they come to state the sequence of para- 
graphs it is a matter of applying the same principle in its 
broader application. 

498. Dictation : faulty, good. — (a) W/iat are the proper ends 
of dictation work? {b) State faulty methods of conducting 
dictation lessons, {c) Describe in detail a good method of co7i- 
ducting a dictation exercise. 

(a) The proper ends of dictation work are correct forms of 
expression, punctuation, capitalization, orderly arrangement, 
spelling and writing. 

(b) Use of long and unsuitable selections. Lack of atten 
tion in preparation. Careless correction of errors. 



350 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(c) Choose a subject suited to the mind and language of 
children. Through the spelling, reading and other lessons 
prepare for the exercise. Read selection as whole to class 
and dictation in phrases. Books should be used for this work 
and kept with care. The correcting is the hardest part of the 
problem. It should be done by the pupil to secure the great- 
est good ; but the teacher must look over the work later. 

499. Homonyms and synonyms.— //i9'zc/ should homonyms be 
taught? Show how yoit would teach the synonyms sitppose, 
hope, expect. 

Homonyms should be taught in sentences. Illustration : To 
teach the homonyms, right and write. The teacher puts on 
the board several sentences similar to, The boy holds the 
book in his right hand. She underscores the word to which 
attention is to be directed. After each sentence has been read 
and discussed, pupils are required to produce original sen- 
tences containing the word correctly used. The word write 
is then taken up and dealt with in the same manner. Then 
the teacher puts on the board a list of sentences with blanks 
to be filled in with one or the other of these words. The pupils 
fill these in. Then they are required to bring to class a cer- 
tain number of original sentences in which these words are 
correctly used. 

I should lead pupils to discriminate between hope, ex- 
pect, and suppose, by giving them sentences containing these 
words correctly used, as, Suppose I should get a pair of skates 
as a present. (I know nothing about whether I shall get 
them or not but am thinking of the enjoyment I could have if I 
had them.) I hope to have a pair of skates. (Someone has 
hinted that I may get them as a present. I feel somewhat 
sure of them now but not absolutely so.) I expect to have a 
pair of skates as a present. (My father has told me that I am 
to have them. I am now sure of them). 

With pupils not sufficiently matured to get the distinction 
quickly, I should follow the plan outlined for the homo- 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 351 

nyms. With those able to discriminate quickly, I should 
follow with another set of sentences, then require pupils to fill 
blanks, explaining" briefly, as I had done, following- with the 
application to sentences of their own construction. 

500. The meaning of words. — {a ) What means would you 
employ to lead pupils to understand the' mea7iings of neiv 
zvords? {b) Illustrate by an abstract luord, a concrete word, 
and a zuord having a figurative meaning. 

(a) With older pupils use of dictionary followed by discus- 
sion as to why certain meaning was chosen rather than some 
other. This method promotes self-activity, self-reliance and 
discrimination. 

With younger pupils I should get at the meaning by ques- 
tioning. Let your question be such that the child will have to 
make use of apperceiving group and thus the process will be 
one of apperception. Always have word discussed in a sen- 
tence as the remainder of sentence sometimes gives the cue. In 
the' case of a concrete word the best way is to show object and 
tell child the name. If this is impossible, form concept in 
child's mind by calling up before his mind images of like 
things until you think he has a fair constructed image of 
thing for which word stands. 

(b) There was a side-board in the room. Side-board. How 
many words? What does side mean? What do you then 
think side-board means? What would a board at side of 
room be used for? To lay things on. What else might I have 
at side of room to lay things on ? A table. Might I call a 
table a side-board? Why? Then describe a side-board. 

Abstract word. 

The woman was charitable. Today a child fell in the school 
yard and John picked her up and brushed her dress. What 
would you say about John's act? It was kind. Mary gave 
half her apple to Edith. What mightjyou say about Mary ? 
She was kind. She was generous. A little lame girl has 
lost her father and mother and has no one to care for her. If 



352 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

a lady takes her home and cares for her, what mig-ht you 
say about her act ? She is kind, generous, noble. I have a 
new word for a person who helps another who is in g-reat 
need. It is charitable. What was the kind lady? She was 
charitable. Children think and tell of cases. 

Figurative word. 

The groves were God's first temples. 

What is a temple? It is a large building. What use is 
made of a temple? It is usually used as a church. Read 
sentence. What does sentence mean? It means that the 
groves were first used as churches. Why? How do groves 
resemble churches? 

501. MisspeWing. — A ccoz/nl psychologically for misspelling. 
Describe, with reasons, what you regard as the best method of 
teaching spelling. 

Poor spelling is due to poor memory. Memory for spelling 
is poor because of some lack in one of the three or all three 
stages of memory. 

In the first stage or fixing in memory the trouble is often 
due to poor method of teaching. There are various methods, 
sound method or repeating sounds of letters, method of learn- 
ing the order in which letters follow 'by rote and methods by 
visualization. The last is the generally accepted method. It 
seeks to fix spelling by means of mental imaging. The em- 
phasis then is placed upon helping the child to form mental 
images of words as they see them written in order that such 
mental image may be associated with word. The process 
varies. 

Illustration. 

Aim. To teach by visualization the spelling of the word 
fence. 

Preparation. Mental concept of fence recalled. Children 
tell what a fence is. 

Presentation. T. writes the word fence upon board. Child- 
ren look at it and spell. Children asked to look again closely, 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 353 

then close eyes and write with fing-er in air the word fence. 
Open eyes and ag-ain spell looking- at board. Teacher covers 
with eraser. Children think how word looks and spell. 

Application. Children write word at teacher's dictation. 
Use word in sentence. 

Where poor spelling is due to second stage of memory or re- 
tention the fault is due to lack of exercise or hereditary in- 
fluence. All brains are not equally retentive. The same is 
true of the third stage or reproduction. The teacher can 
simply see that child has concept for word, is properly taught to 
fix word in memory and is then given opportunity to use word. 

502. Value of debates. 

1. Vocabulary enlarged. Power to use words. 

2. Alertness and quick decision. Appropriate word 

must be selected on the instant. 

3. Mastery of g-rammatical principles through 

sound. 

4. Pronunciation, enunciation, inflection. 

5. Purity in tone and ease in g-esture. 

6. Self-confidence and enthusiasm. 

503. Comparison in study of an animal. — What are the advan- 
tages of the method of conipai'ison in the study of an animal? 
Briefly suggest the points to be kept iii mind in such an exer- 
cise. 

It is a g-ood way to review, fixes it more clearly in mind, it 
bring-s out the likenesses and differences, it encourages self- 
activity and interest. 

To conduct such an exercise. 

1. Have specimens or pictures. 

2. Compare the important likenesses and differ- 

ences. 

3. Be sure that both have been studied in detail 

previously. 

4. Classify the points and write them on the 

blackboard. 

84 



354 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

504. Drilling discussed and illustrated.— ^.r^/«/?? the jiecessity 
of drilling, and show good ways a7id poor ways of drilhng. 

Frequent drills in all teaching- are an absolute necessity. 
By the law of repetition this idea is made prominent. Drills 
tend to elaborate what has been learned. They enable pupils 
to become independent and think for themselves. Their mental 
powers are enlarged. They learn to do truly by doing-, and 
there is a stimulation about reviews that cannot be acquired 
in any other way. Students as a rule enjoy intellectual tests 
and look ahead to them with some degree of anticipation. 
Drills are thus an aid to good work and to discipline. 

Good ways of drilling. By the Herbartian idea of summar- 
izing every recitation. The lesson of the previous day should 
be reviewed before beginning the new lesson. Occasionally a 
whole recitation should be set aside for the review of a certain 
period. Both oral and written work may be required in re- 
view. For my own part I prefer oral drill if I am to cover 
considerable ground in a comparatively brief period. 

Poor ways of drilling. It is a poor drill that occasions 
lapses of time between the recitation and any set time for drill. 
The drill should be persistent and- constant. It is a poor drill 
that dwells upon review for one day and stops there. 

A lesson in history should be summed up at the close of the 
recitation. The same lesson should be- reviewed at the begin- 
ning of the next recitation. The following day just the salient 
points given with a review of the preceding day's lessron. 
About once a week the work for the whole week should be re- 
viewed. It would be faulty to leave the lesson unsummarized 
for a week and then attempt to review it. 

One method of review in history I have mentioned in the pre- 
ceding paragraph. Another is by use of the topical outline 
arranged by the pupils themselves. They should be able to 
reproduce the outline and describe each heading of the out- 
line. 

In geography a lesson on cotton should be summarized by 
the pupil in a similar way. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 355 

505. Value of types. — ^Az/t' briefly the ediieatioiial value of 
types. 

Types are bases of the apperceptive process. When a pupil 
habituates himself to any type or form of mental activity, the 
mind will more easily adapt itself to all similar or related 
forms. It is economy of effort. 

506. Types in geography : New York City.— ^ primary pupil 
in New York City becomes familiar with geography, history, 
civics, social and industrial features of this city. Show how 
such knowledge can be used as a type in the study of other 
cities. What are the advantages of types in geography? 

A pupil v^^ho gains these various kinds of know^ledge about 
his ow^n city may use this knowledg-e as a type for the study 
of other cities. This type becomes a g-uide or a standard of 
measurement. This is in accordance with the principle of ap- 
perception ; i.e., we g-ain or assimilate* new knowledge by 
means of old knowledge. In studying the history of the reason 
for founding a city on the island of Manhattan and also for 
founding a city on the site of Boston we find these reasons 
different, — one for trade, the other on account of religious 
difficulties. If the reasons for the founding of New York have 
been illustrated by the pupils we can use the laws of com- 
parison and contrast in studying about the foundation of 
Boston. The differences will strongly impress the child. 
Another step may lead to the study of Chicago, a trade center 
of the West. Here again there are differences. Then take up 
San Francisco. Eastern trade and the discovery of gold in 
California are stated as causes. Compare and contrast with 
New York and Boston. In this way we are going .from home 
outward. We are gradually building an apperceiving group 
which may be of use whenever called upon. As in this one 
concrete example on one type in history limited to New York 
we may use a type study of any type in civics, geography or 
other institutional life. We are then teaching according to the 
following educational maxims : 



356 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

1. From the known to the related unknown. 

2. From concrete to abstract. 

3. There is a natural order in which the powers of 

mind should be exercised and new objects of 
knowledge given. 

4. One thing at a time. 

5. From particular to general. 

This mode of using topics as a basis for the study of a geog- 
raphy is advocated by McMurry, one of the best authorities 
in this country. The advantages of using type studies as a 
basis in geography are the following : (1) Types are keys to 
larger areas of geographical knowledge ; (2) realities are 
studied; (3) thoroughly interesting and instructive; (4) the 
study of causes and causal relations ; (5) basis of a series of 
comparisons; (6) from home outwards; (7) direct path to whole 
groups and sequences. 

507. Teaching defined and illustrated. 

"Teaching is bringing knowledge into due relation with 
the mind." — Hinsdale, (a) Give two requisite qualificatioits of 
a teacher that are suggested in this statement. {2) {b) Explain 
the expression "■briitging into due relation,'' (j), and illustrate 
what is mea7it by it. (j). 

(a) Two qualifications are a knowledge of the subject-matter 
and ability to use adapted methods of teaching. In uniting 
these two qualifications the teacher will use her knowledge of 
psychology in adapting the subject-matter to the minds of the 
pupils. 

(b) Bringing into due relation means arranging and pre- 
senting matter so that the child can and will comprehend it. 
The use of the formal steps of instruction would bring knowl- 
edge into due relation in accordance with this point of view. 
An illustration may be found in a lesson on a canal. Suppose 
the pupils have never seen a canal or a lock in a canal. Here 
description would not suffice. A picture or a model of a lock 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 357 

would bring- the matter into a realistic form so that the child- 
ren's minds could comprehend it. 

508. Renaissance. — {a) What was the Revival of Learnmg? 
When and why did it take place? fjj- (b) What wei'-e the 

subjects of instruction in the schools of Europe at time of the 
Revival of Learning? 

(a) The Revival of Learning- is the name g-iven to that old 
intellectual movement which became effective in the 16th cen- 
tury. No definite date can be assig-ned as the beg-inning- of 
this movement, because the revival of learning must be viewed 
as the product of all the prior intellectual movements. The 
date 1453 is sometimes g-iven to indicate an important occasion 
of the revival of learning-. At that time the Mohammedans cap- 
tured Constantinople. The Greek scholars in that city had 
the choice of Mohammedanism or death. They fled to Italy, 
and their writings and teachings influenced a renewed inter- 
est in the study of classical Latin and Greek. This interest 
in these two thing-s spread over all parts of Europe, (b) The 
subjects of instruction in the elementary schools were those 
known as the seven liberal arts. The trivium consisted of 
grammar, rhetoric and log-ic ; the quadrivium consisted of 
arithmetic, g-eometry, music and astronomy. See page 86, 
section 184, in the Epitome. The subjects of instruction in the 
Christian universities were law, medicine, philosophy and 
theology. See page 122, section 214, in the Epitome. 

509. Outline on the Erie Canal. — (a) Make a topical outline of 
the matter to be ''presented'" in a lesson on the Erie Canal, (s ) • 
(b) Describe three ways in which the knowledge gained i?i 
this lesson may be "'applied'''' by the pupils, (j). 

This question requires the use of the Herbartian formal 
steps of instruction, viz: Preparation, Presentation, Applica- 
tion. 

(a) A suitable "preparation" for this lesson is a discussion 
of the means of transportation in the early days of New York 



358 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

State. They were rivers, trails, turnpikes, railroads and 
canals. 

PRESENTATION. 

1. Usefulness of such a canal. 

(a) To the industries of the State. 

(b) To the North West. 

2. Natural conditions favorable. 

(a) Short route from Lake Erie to the Hudson 
River. 

(b) No great barriers to construction. 

3. The construction. 

(a) Favored by Governor Clinton. 

(b) State aid. 

(c) Local aid. 

( d) Progress to completion. 

APPLICATION. 

(b) Make an outline map showing- termini of Erie Canal and 
principal cities along- the route. Trace shipment of g-rain from 
Chicago to New York by water, incidentally studying grain 
elevators at Buffalo. For local uses, trace eastern and west- 
ern shipments of flour from Rochester, salt from Syracuse, and 
hops from Utica. 

Compare railroads and canal in regard to cost, rates and 
time of transportation; and notice especially the growth of 
cities along the Erie Canal. These causal relations will show 
the benefit of the Erie Canal to agriculture, manufactures, 
and commerce. 

510. Outline of topics on Hudson River: reasons. — Prepai^e a 
topical oittline of a geographical study of the Hudson River, 
givijig reasojis for your arrajigemeiit of topics. 
Review surface of eastern New York. 
I. Principal elevations. 
II. Direction of slopes. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 359 

III. Position of river. 

1. Source. 

2. Direction. 

3. Mouth. 

IV. Branches : source, direction. 
V. Comparative size. 

VI. Uses: northern course for lumbering, manufacturing; 
southern course for commerce, travel. 
VII. Important places along- its banks. 
VIII. Influence on New York City. 
IX. Influence on the West. 

X. Place in history. Discovery by Hudson; Patroons; 
first steamboat; line British w^ished to hold in 
Revolutionary War; later history; first canal. 
XI. Place in literature. Called the American Rhine. 
The pupil is already familiar with the surface of the State, 
and as the character of the river depends upon the surround- 
ing slopes, a review of this topic prepares for a new one. The 
position of the river is prepared for, and this should be fol- 
lowed by its comparative size and uses. 

The fact that there is considerable traveling on the river 
leads to the location of places of interest and importance. 

The subject could not well be classed without connecting it 
with history and literature. 
For correlation on this topic, see page 8. 

511. Topical method applied to New York State. — Give the ad- 
va7itages of the topical method. Mention six topics, in orde7'^ 
ill the study of New York State. 

The topical method promotes self-reliance and logical think- 
ing. As connected discourse is necessary in the expression of 
the thought, every pupil will learn to think while standing; 
to enlarge his vocabulary for immediate use; to improve his 
pronunciation and inflection; to master the principles of agree- 
ment and concord through sound; to overcome self-conscious- 
ness; and, in brief, to develop his own powers through use. 



360 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

New York State. Location ; importance and approximate 
area; mountains; rivers and lakes; chief mineral and agricul- 
tural areas; chief cities; exports and imports; means of trans- 
portation. 

512. School virtues and evils. — Enunie7^ate five school vi?-tues 
and five school evils, and prepare to sho%v the relations of 
habit to each. 

Five of the most important virtues developed through the 
school are obedience, or respect for authority, punctuality, 
order and system, intelligence and efficiency. 

The school evils most to be fought are : 

(1) The divorce of theory and practice or verbalism, 

by which is meant the teaching of rules of 
grammar in such a way as to make no change 
for the better in the pupil's speech ; the teach- 
ing of mathematics without application to 
practical problems, etc. 

(2) The unnecessary crushing out of individuality. 

(3) Dishonest work. 

(4) Cramming. 

(5) Cliques. 

The teacher can soon tell which of the children under her 
care have been trained to habits of obedience in the home. For 
these she has comparatively little to do but supply proper 
stimuli for development. To inculcate the habit we must "put 
together the things we wish to go together, and keep apart 
those we wish apart." — ^(Thorndike. ) I believe, with the 
author, that we must depend more on reward than on punish- 
ment for developing this habit. When we get obedience, we 
must praise it; when we punish disobedience, we must be 
careful in the association found. Keeping after school for 
trivial offenses is apt to breed a dislike of the school. The 
same principle must underlie the development of the virtues of 
punctuality and order. The principles of vividness of vocali- 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 361 

zation and repetition are the basis for habituation. We should 
therefore try to bring- before the mind of the child a clear 
notion of the ideals of punctuality and order ; and then drill 
upon them, being- careful to supply as far as in us lies the ele- 
ment of resulting- satisfaction whenever the desired reaction 
takes place. 

With intellig-ence and efficiency we work on the same lines, 
but on a hig-her plane. Here we must try to put the habits of 
thought into well org-anized systems and strengthen the cross- 
line between the systems. 

In dealing- with the school evils we often must beg-in with 
our own mentality. If we are strangers in the community in 
which we teach, our first business will be to make ourselves 
masters of the environment, bring- our illustrations and appli- 
cations into close touch with this environment in order to avoid 
verbalism. 

The proper treatment of the individual lies likewise in our 
own hands. If he is timid, awkward, but still mentally active, 
we must try to divert his attention from himself, rather than 
scold him. That is, we must associate the idea of the subject 
matter to be recited with the satisfying- result of approval, 
rather than associating- unkindly criticism with effort. 

To substitute the habit of honest work for dishonest work, 
we should associate quick detection with dishonesty ; pride 
of independence with honesty. 

Habits of cramming- and cliques must be treated with the 
greatest care. To overcome cramming- and substitute the 
habit of every day work, we should associate the idea of ex- 
amination with former questions as opposed to memory tests 
as far as we can. Cliques are best avoided by introducing 
some g-eneral org-anization to which all pupils may belong-, and 
associating- with the ideas of social intercourse hig-h demo- 
cratic ideals, as opposed to narrow, limiting-, feverish rela- 
tionship. 



362 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

ANOTHER ANSWER TO 512. 



ive school virtues are : 


1. 


Obedience. 


2. 


Promptness. 


3. 


Honesty. 


4. 


Industry. 


5. 


Studiousness. 


ive school vices are : 


1. 


Dishonesty. 


2. 


Idleness. 


3. 


Untidiness. 


4. 


Tardiness. 


5. 


Disobedience. 



In the five virtues habit tends to make each automatic, not 
needing- the power of the w^ill for decision. The obedient child 
does not decide each time w^hen called upon to be obedient that 
he w^ill or w^ill not do as he is told. He has formed the fixed 
tendency to act in a certain way under special conditions and 
he keeps on doing- so once the habit is formed. In fact, the 
more often he performs the act, the less difficult it becomes. 
In the same way the child who has formed the habit of doing 
thing-s promptly does so without effort. So on through the 
list. 

With the vices, let us take one as an example — dishonesty. 
A child has poor moral influence at home. He soons finds in 
school that there are ways of getting things done by cheating. 
He does the thing once, is not caught. He proceeds. He 
finally forms the habit of cheating whenever possible. This 
leads to other vices, such as lying. The child lies the first 
time when caught copying his number work. He lies a second 
time and soon he forms the fixed tendency to lie every time. 
Thus the vicious habit becomes stronger. It is the duty of 
every teacher from first grade up to watch out that child gets 
no opportunity of cheating so that the pernicious habit may 
not be begun. The average child placed under efficient teach- 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 363 

ers (and granted that the home influence is not bad) rig-ht 
throug-h the course will not form the habits of vice. We find 
school vices w^herever there is a poor control. Where there is 
poor control, there can be no discipline in the sense of leading- 
on to personal control. 

513. Serviceable memory. — What are the charactei^istics of a 
serviceable meinory ? How far and by what meaits may it be 
cultivated? 

Memory has three stag-es : 

1. Apprehension or fixing in memory. 

2. Reflection or keeping- in memory. 

3. Reproduction or bring-ing- to consciousness when 

needed. 

In order that a memory may be serviceable, attention must 
be paid to all three stages. Each is of importance. 

Apprehension is of great importance. Sense importance is 
its fundamental law. The stronger the impression made upon 
the senses the greater will be the power of retention and re- 
production. 

If the first stage has been well begun, retention, or keeping 
in memory, is not apt to be a hard stage — that is the thing 
fixed is not likely to sink so far into sub-consciousness as to 
be impossible of recall. The third stage presents repetition 
of reproduction as a necessary adjunct of a serviceable mem- 
ory. As the race loses power of any faculty which remains 
unused, so the mind forgets the thing fixed and held in mem- 
ory if that thing is not called to consciousness for use at var- 
ious intervals. For instance, I once fixed or impressed in 
memory a certain Latin word. Memory held that word in 
subconsciousness ready for use. I neglected to bring to con- 
sciousness after a certain number of repetitions. I now have 
forgotten the word. 

A serviceable memory then is a memory which is given exer- 
cise and plenty of it. All the work of school and life tends to 
cultivate memory. 



364 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

514. Jacotot. — Jacotot said, "All human being-s are equally 
capable of learning-. Everyone can teach ; and moreover, can 
teach what he does not know himself." Discuss this excerpt. 

That all human being-s are equally capable of learning- is 
not true. There is great diversity in the quality of minds of 
different persons. This principle has been recognized by 
prominent educators from Plato down. Plato's definition of 
education contains this principle. "To give to the body and 
soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable. " 
One who teaches children of same ag-e, same grade, same ad- 
vantages, finds marked diversity in character of capabilities. 

That everyone can teach, which here means cause to learn, 
is not true in every subject. Not true where technical knowl- 
edge is required, as in music and natural sciences. A child 
makes a drawing of a cylinder. Unless I know the laws of 
perspective I cannot criticise. If I do not know the varieties 
of trees I cannot teach them. If I do not know how to per- 
form an experiment to illustrate condensation or do not know 
the laws I cannot teach condensation. 

515. Walker on old and new education. 

"A generation ago it was the accepted theory of educators 
generally that instruction, to be most effective, should cross 
the grain of the youthful mind ; that if disinclination were 
shown towards any particular study, the teacher should catch 
at this as his welcome clue ; and that the scholar thereafter 
should be practiced and drilled for his mind's good, against 
his indifference, his dislike, and even his repugnance until he 
should learn to do well and freely that for which he had origi- 
nally the strongest inaptitude. Not only a better observation 
of life, but the study of physiological psychology has led the 
educators of today to a widely different view of the office of 
instruction." (Francis A. Walker.) 

What is this widely different view? Give, with reasons, 
your judgment as to the comparative soundness of the two 
views, showing the bearing of each on interest and will. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 365 

The widely different view is that we should let interest be 
our g-uiding- star. The old view reg-arded all learning- as dis- 
ciplinary and the harder and more repug-nant the task, the 
greater was the disciplinary value. We of today take inter- 
est for our g-uide.' Where you have interest you also have 
volition for we wish for that in which we are interested and 
will to do it. Interest does not mean that all tasks must be 
made easy ; on the contrary, the task may have been such that 
it mig-ht not have been accomplished under the old plan while 
interest overcomes all obstacles. Under the old plan the work 
was drudgery; under the new the drudgery is not perceptible 
to the mind while the attention is fixed upon not a many-sided 
knowledg-e, but a many-sided interest. Where the interest is, 
the knowledg-e follows as a matter of course. It is better not 
to give a child universal knowledge but rather a desire for 
knowledge. It is this interest and desire to attain certain 
aims that have made the work of Marconi and Edison possible. 

516. Hinsdale's definition of education discussed. — "Teaching 
is bringing knowledge into due relation with the mind." — 
Hinsdale, (a) Give two reqtnsite qualifications of a teacher 
that are suggested in this statement. (2) (b) Explain the 
expression "■bringing into due relation,'' (j) and ilhistrate 
what is inea7it by it. fjj. 

(a) The teacher must know the subject to be brought into 
due relation with the pupils' minds and (b) must know the 
nature of the mind addressed. The expression, bringing 
"knowledge into due relation", refers to the principle of ap- 
perception. New knowledge may only be assimilated by 
means of old related knowledge already stored in the mind. 
On a visit to Eton last summer, a youthful guide informed 
me that the statue in the centre of the quadrangle was the 
figure of Charles VI. I looked at him in amazement. He had 
evidently said this a great many times and appeared surprised 
at my scrutiny. But my English history was not so rusty as 
to pass this information without a challenge. After one or two 



366 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

better directed historical remarks, I said, "Oh, you mean 
Henry XI." Now, this boy had no basis for his historical in- 
formation regarding Eton. There was no apperceiving mass 
for the story he had learned for practical purposes to reach 
out and take it into hospitable quarters. 

517. Symbolism. — State the meaning of symbolism in educa- 
tion. 

The practical meaning of symbolism, as the term is used in 
elementary education, corresponds closely with personification. 
It is the imaginative process of ascribing human life and 
human affections to plants, animals and other objects which 
cannot possess such life ?nd such affections One phase of 
symbolism is seen in the myths and fairy tales which form a 
large part of the early primary instruction, and another phase 
of it is in ascribing the qualities of companionship to the vari- 
ous plants, flowers, trees and other objects in nature study. 
The adverse criticism of this use of symbolism is that it per- 
verts the imagination. Children are learning what they must 
unlearn in later life. In answer to this adverse criticism it is 
held that the use of symbolism is strictly within the natural 
limits of the child. The imagination is simply getting the 
kind of material which it is able to appropriate in that stage 
of development. Such imaginative material is not applied at 
a later stage when the reasoning and memory become stronger. 

518. Ideals in education. 

In order to form an ideal of education we are forced back 
upon the experience of the past for a basis of judgment. 
What shall we select out of this past experience as the fitting 
heritage of the individual? Butler says the individual is en- 
titled to his "scientific, literary, aesthetic, institutional and 
religious inheritance." The spiritual inheritance of the race 
will fall under these divisions. One can imagine an individ- 
ual possessing a large share of the first three, and still fall- 
ing far short of the modern ideal education. But, in order to 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 367 

possess really his institutional and relig-ious inheritance, he 
must have experienced many varied relationships w^ith his 
fellov^^-men. Consequently we find Dewey emphasizing- "social 
stimulus" or the adjustment of the individual to his environ- 
ment. But this environment is the product of race develop- 
ment in successive epochs. The child passes in a general way 
throug-h the same stages. Consequently true education will 
seek to g"ive the individual the best products of the race at a 
time when his development is best suited to receive them. In 
order, however, to arrive at this goal, something more is re- 
quired than merely to give the child his proper mental food. 
He must be enlisted in his own cause, and must react in a 
healthy way upon the stimulus presented. In other words, we 
must arouse him to that conscious direction of his own powers, 
which we call self-activity. Then we shall get that happy 
harmonization of interest and effort which produces self-reali- 
zation. When self-activity is once aroused in the lines of a 
many-sided interest, a physical, intellectual and moral inter- 
est, we shall certainly have a person of character and effi- 
ciency. Such a one ought to fulfill Spencer's ideal of "com- 
plete living-." He ought to be able to provide efficiently for 
his direct and indirect self-preservation ; perform his duties 
properly in the rearing of the young; act the man's part in the 
duties of citizenship ; and finally, be fitted for the enjoyment 
of a noble leisure in the pursuit and contemplation of the 
aesthetic achievements of the race. 

519. Discipline of consequences. — Spencer and Rousseau stood 
for the discipline of cojiseqtiences. Explain, illustrate, and 
then justify your opinion of such punishment. 

The discipline of consequences, as formulated by Spencer 
and Rousseau stood for natural punishment. For instance, to 
inculcate the habit of punctuality, Spencer said the dilatory 
child should lose the walk or the theatre rather than have 
others wait for him and scold him. I believe in such punish- 
ment as far as the best good of the child may permit it. To 



368 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

let a child fall in the water, with no possible means of avoid- 
ing drowning- would be in strict obedience to this principle, 
but not in accordance with my own view of judgment. How- 
ever, I think we should observe this principle as often as pos- 
sible. For instance, I was recently brought to face a problem 
of discipline in my own classroom. The pupils have the privi- 
lege of speaking in a low tone between recitations. Two 
teachers complained to me that the pupils abused the privilege, 
were noisy and disorderly at these times. One of the teach- 
ers advised me to keep them in after school. I thought of 
Spencer and decided the natural consequence was the removal 
of the privilege. My principal objected that there was no one 
there to enforce the law. I said I would personally see all the 
teachers entering my room, inform them of the decree, and ask 
for reports. It is working very well, and I expect to see a 
habit formed during this discipline, which will do away with 
the old habit of disorder when the privilege is restored. 

ANOTHER ANSWER FOR 519. 

The discipline of consequences would permit the child to 
suffer the natural consequences of his offense against law. 
If he deliberately breaks a window in his room, let him catch 
cold from sleeping in it. This thing is excellent, in that it 
rests on a foundation of justice which every child acknowl- 
edges, and may be used with good results, — just as far as it 
does not endanger the mental, moral or physical health of the 
child, for which its parents and guardians are responsible. 
That would be a case where one stage of the culture epochs 
would better be left out, the one where men learn by experi- 
ence what to avoid. 

It will work admirably to leave the care of a school, which 
has the right spirit, the punishment of a child proven guilty 
of deliberately injuring the school community by defacement, 
pilfering, etc. He who will not obey community law is out- 
side community privileges. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 369 

But there are cases where the action of the principle is not 
immediate enough, or too disastrous to the child's well-being-, 
to permit its being- applied. I had in one class a boy remark- 
ably bright but as remarkably lazy. He got from recitation 
what others got by long study; and in reviews, he had by no 
means perfect knowledge, but better than some poor faithful 
plodders who had dug out all they had by sheer manual labor. 
It was the same in every class and at home. He had been al- 
lowed to be lazy at home, in fear of injuring his health. Not 
a vicious boy, but — lazy; and a bad example for all and a dis- 
couragement for many. The natural punishment would have 
been to let him go with his half-used faculties, his powers dy- 
ing from inertia; but that would have been a wrong beyond 
estimation. Accordingly after a long talk with the father, 
I told the boy that every day his work was not prepared he 
would work in my room until he had done just twice the amount; 
and after school, if he wouldn't work in my time, he must 
work in his room. Three weeks of work convinced him that I 
meant it. Now, he is in my senior class, he hands in his out- 
side work on time, but usually with a twinkle of the eye, for 
he had wit enough to appreciate fully the humor of the situa- 
tion. Here was a case where two teeth came in payment for 
one, — and it worked. 

520. Self-activity illustrated. — Shozv specifically how to utilize 
the self -activity of pupils in the different elementary studies. 

1. Self-activity of children is one of their marked charac- 
teristics. The teacher must not repress this, but seek to divert 
it into proper channels. 

Thus in a reading lesson the pupils should change their 
position, i. e., part of the time they may stand, read individu- 
ally, then collectively. Have the pupils make gestures. 

In geography, while preparing the lesson, let the pupils 
make maps to show products, industries, race, distribution, 
etc. Let them make models to show surface features. 

25 



370 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

In lang^uage work, pupils enjoy writing- for the purpose of 
giving pleasure to others. In this work have some composition 
written on the board, and corrected, while others may be read 
in class. 

In spelling, children enjoy making words from the letters of 
another word. Spelling matches arouse the feeling of emula- 
tion. This causes the pupils to put forth their best efforts. I 
have had classes that would rather have a spelling match than 
a good game of ball. 

2. Another answer. 

In reading, by giving certain written work to be done in the 
preparation of the lesson. 

In spelling, by requiring the writing of the words both in 
the preparation of the lesson and in the recitation. By having 
original sentences written in which the words are used. 

In arithmetic, by having problems carefully worked out, 
diagrams drawn, quantities measured, etc. 

In geography, by having land and water forms molded in 
sand, maps drawn, product maps constructed, charts made, 
scrap books made, etc. 

In language and grammar, by reproduction and original 
composition work, and written analysis, diagrams, etc. 

In nature study, by having soil prepared, seeds planted, 
plants cared for, collections made of insects, flowers, miner- 
als, etc. 

In history, by having maps and charts made, sketches copied, 
note books kept, original researches made, etc. 

In all subjects, require certain work and, at the same time, 
suggest in various ways, other work to be done voluntarily to 
cultivate the habit of spontaneous independent action on the 
part of the individual. 

521. Analysis in percentage. — Make a practical concrete prob- 
le7n in percentage and solve it by analysis. 

A man by selling a house for $2500 gained 25% of the pur- 
chase price. What did he pay for the house ? 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 371 

Analysis: Since he gained 25% of the cost, the selling" price 
must have been 125% of the cost. Therefore $2500 was 125% 
of the cost. 1 % of the cost was j^^ of $2500, or $20 ; and 100% , 
100 times $20, or $2000. Ans. 

Use of common fractions in percentage. — Construct a con- 
crete example in percentage and solve it by the method of 
common fractions. 

A farmer bought a horse for $100 and sold it so as to gain 
25% of the cost. What was the selling price ? 

Solution: 25% of the cost=^ of the cost. 
X of the cost=$25. 
$100+$25— $125, the selling price. Ans. 

522. Percentage: analysis, formula, algebra. — (a) State a sim- 
ple problem in which perce?itage and rate are given to find 
base, and solve it (i) by analysis, {2) by use of formula, (j) by 
algebra, {b) State with reasons at what points in the elemen- 
tary schools you would use each of the above modes of solution. 

(a) A man received as his commission $315 for selling goods 
at 3 per cent. What was the selling price of the goods ? 

(1) The agent receives 3 per cent of the selling price for his 
services. $315 is the amount he receives ; therefore, $315 is 3 
per cent of the selling price. If $315 is 3 per cent of the sell- 
ing price, 1 per cent of the selling price equals one-third of 
$315, or $105, and 100 per cent of the selling price equals 100 
times $105, or $10,500. 3 per cent equals $315. 1 percent equals 
one-third of $315, or $105. 100 per cent equals 100 times $105, 
or $10,500, selling price. 

(2) P divided by R equals B. .03 equals R. $315 equals P. 
$315 divided by .03 equals $10,500, or B. 

(3) X equals Base. 3 x divided by 100 equals $315. 3 x 
equals $31,500. x equals $10,500. 

(b) Use analysis in the first work with percentage, for the 
child is able to see that if 3 per cent equals a number, 1 per 
cent will equal one-third of it, and 100 per cent 100 times this 
result. This method is but an application of earlier reason- 



372 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

ing-, and the work is done without difficulty. The method may 
be used in the fourth year in school, and perhaps earlier. I 
have little use for the formula. Pupils in the two hig-hest 
grades in the elementary school should be able directly to find 
the base by dividing- the percentage by the rate expressed 
decimally. I feel that the formula is a hindrance if taught 
earlier in the grade, on account of a pupil in our graduating 
class last year, who came to us from a private school and was 
hampered by trying to think what formula fitted the problem 
in hand, instead of finding out what he had and using it. If 
there be time to solve problems in as many different ways as 
possible, I should use the alarebraic form in the last year, but 
feel it is not essential. 

523. Questioning: consecutive, promiscuous, simultaneous. — 

Nmne three kinds of questwnmg and state the advantages and 
disadvantages of each. 

1. The consecutive method of questioning following the or- 
der of the roll or the seating in the class room. The advan- 
tage of this method lies in the fact that it is not necessary for 
the teacher to call the names of the successive pupils and thus 
time is saved for the teacher and the class. The disadvantage 
in it lies in the fact that each pupil knows when he must re- 
cite, and when he has recited feels secure in thinking that he 
will not be called upon within a limited time. The latter con- 
dition may tend to lack of attention and interest in the work of 
the recitation. 

2. Promiscuous method of questioning is that in which the 
teacher does not follow order in seating or the order of the roll, 
but calls from different parts of the room as his fancy dictates. 
The advantage of this method is said to be in the fact that no 
pupil knows when his turn will come and so all are presumed 
to be giving attention. The fact that a pupil has recited does 
not justify him in thinking that he will not be called a second 
or a third time. The disadvantage in the method lies in the 
loss of time in calling the names, in the exemption of certain 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 373 

lazy pupils, and in the probability that the best ones in class 
will be called upon more than those who do not show the same 
amount of eag-erness to recite. 

3. Simultaneous method of questioning is that in which 
questions are asked from the whole class and after pupils are 
given time to think what the answer will be. Then the whole 
class or one pupil may answer the question while the others 
are thinking- or answering- with him. The advantag-e of this 
method is said to be that the attention and the interest of all 
pupils are held during- the time of asking- the questions. In 
those cases where it means concert recitations it is possible 
that a large number of the pupils are not giving the required 
thought, attention and answers as the general tendency would 
seem to indicate. 

524. Questioning: faulty questions criticised. — Criticise each of 
the following questions as introductory to a development lesson 
or an object lesson : (a) What do you think I saw on the way 
to school this morning ? (b) What do we always find when 
we come to school in the mornitig f (c) Why do the claws of a 
dog make a noise oji the floor, while those of a cat do not? (d) 
Who can tell me anything about this (holding the object in 
view) ? (e) Is the bill of this bird long or short ? 

(a) This question is practically a universal question. The 
normal mind should have seen hundreds or even thousands of 
objects on the way to school in the morning. Such a question 
has no educative element in it. It does nothing to lead the 
child toward definite thinking or consistent reasoning. 

(b) This is a very indefinite question. While not so broad 
as (a) still this question leaves too large a choice and the only 
result can be that of guessing. 

(c) This is a telling question and so it relieves the necessity 
of thinking. It would not be much of an effort for the average 
child to surmise the effect upon prey when the approaching 
noise is sufficient for a warning. 



374 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

(d) This g-eneral question is another invitation that does not 
cause pupils to work toward definite and accurate thinking-. 
It puts no responsibility upon any member of the class nor does 
it limit any child to an answer that can be a contribution to 
the development lesson or the object lesson. Logical thinking- 
is not stimulated by it, nor does the question tend to bring- 
knowledge into due relation with the mind. Some specific 
questions should be asked to introduce a lesson of this kind. 

(e) This question allows a choice of answers and so SO^o of 
the answer is g-iven by sug-g-estion. If one g-uess does not 
bring the correct answer the other must be the correct answer. 
Such a question does not stimulate thought. 

525. Methods, advantages and disadvantages : five applications.— 

StaU the advantages or disadvantages of each of the follow- 
ing methods : {lo). (a) Indicating before >a question is given, 
the pupil to be called on. {b) Looking fixedly at one who is 
answering or reading in class, {c) Using objects during a 
review, {d) Having pupils in class formulate the problems in 
arithnetic. {/) Having pupils correct one another's spelling 
exercises. 

( a) The advantages must be considered exceptions to the 
general pedagogical rule. A timid child or a child who is 
likely not to hear the question on account of deafness, inatten- 
tion or disorder may be aided so as to produce an economy of 
time. The disadvantage lies in the fact that such a method of 
questioning permits all other pupils to be inattentive if they 
are inclined that way. Those not called on may feel that the 
one who has been called will be held responsible for the answer 
to that question. The teaching process should generally be 
considered a social process involving the teacher and all of the 
pupils. Every act of instruction should be presented in such 
a way that every child will feel a responsibility for contribut- 
ing something to the answer. 

(b) The disadvantage is embarrassment. If the teacher is 
not strong in government the one who is reciting will have 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 375 

more attention than the recitation demands and certain other 
pupils will be g-iven an opportunity to waste their time. The 
advantag-e lies in the encouragement that may be g-iven to a 
pupil who needs the strong- personality of the teacher. 

(c) The advantag-es can be found only in rare exceptions. If 
a child is defective or if a child has been absent unavoidably 
the teacher may be justified in presenting an object during the 
review, but even in such cases it would seem better to give 
personal instruction to those few pupils rather than to take the 
time from the majority of the class. In general the use of ob- 
jects during review will relieve the pupils from the necessity 
of all recalling the lesson as originally presented. In other 
words, the use of the object gives each child an excuse for not 
using his own activity. 

(d) The advantages are interest, co-operation and the feel- 
ing of class responsibility. It may be an incentive to individual 
effort and the use of the problems so presented may be held as 
a stimulus toward the attainment of a recognized standard of 
excellence. Such recognition may be silent or it may be an- 
nounced publicly as a recognition of the good work done by the 
pupil in making the problems. The disadvantage is not evi- 
dent excepting in the abuse of the process. A weak teacher 
may rely upon that means of securing problems for advanced 
work and for review while a good text-book is set aside. 

(e) The disadvantages might be considered under the head 
of collusion; or under the charge that such criticism is made 
by an incompetent critic, and the pupil who has been unjustly 
criticised feels that a personal injury has been done to him. 
This latter argument need not be accepted if the teacher will 
always offer pupils the right of appeal. The advantage of 
this method is economy of time for the teacher and an illustra- 
tion of self-criticism, self-activity, and self-realization in the 
exercises. 

526. Same topic as 525 ; five more applications. — 5/^/^ briefly 
the advantages or disadvantages of each of the following 
methods: (lo) {a) Questioning pupils in rotation. {b) Re- 



376 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

peating a question, (r) Paying most attention to the smartest 
or dullest pupils in a class. {d) Breaking off an answer be- 
fore completion and asking another pupil to continue, {e) Com- 
pelling pupils to write a certai7t nuinber of times words that 
they have mispelled. 

(a) The advantages are a saving- of time in not having- to 
call the names and a feeling- of alertness under the conscious- 
ness of the paproaching- time to answer. It is possible to 
arouse a creditable activity in a class by this rapid and sys- 
tematic method of questioning-. The disadvantag-e is said to 
be in the fact that a pupil knows when he has to recite and 
that he will not give his attention until he knows that he must 
answer in turn. 

(b) The custom cannot be sanctioned as a safe rule. It is a 
waste of the teacher's time and energy and it is an open in- 
vitation to inattention on the part of the pupils. There is, 
however, the advantage of putting the question so clearly and 
so emphatically that defective pupils may be given a chance 
to grasp the full meaning of the question ; and again the 
repetition gives the teacher an opportunity to impress the 
main points in the lesson. This last view presupposes an at- 
tentive class and an interesting presentation of new work. 

(c) This process in teaching has many disadvantages unless 
the class be divided into groups according to ability. If most 
of the attention is given to the smartest pupils the average 
pupils and the dullest pupils are going to be unable to keep up 
with the best division of the class. Should most of the atten- 
tion be given to the dullest pupils then the other two divisions 
are likely to lose interest because they already know the work 
that the teacher is presenting to the dullest pupils. It is sug- 
gested that the class be divided into three divisions or groups 
so that two groups may be working at the board or on paper 
under other assignments while the teacher is directing her at- 
tention to one group in particular. Then the teacher is justi- 
fied in giving most of her attention to whatever group she is 
teaching during that period. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 377 

(d) In nearly all school work the aim of teaching- is to cause 
the pupil to form correct habits of persistent thinking-. Such 
thinking- demands poise of body and mind and time for the 
consideration of the matter presented. Breaking- off an answer 
before completion is likely to interfere with continuous think- 
ing- and so the practice cannot be commended. It may have 
an advantag-e, however, in causing certain pupils to remain 
attentive at all times during- the recitation period. The matter 
of deciding- whether such breaking- off is harmful or not de- 
pends larg-ely upon the pupil who has been interrupted. 

(e) Writing- mispelled words a limited number of times dur- 
ing- the process of learning- to spell those words has the sanc- 
tion of many educators, but when the process is made a pun- 
ishment for the mispelling- the penalty causes the child to for- 
g-et the value of the learning- process and so he comes to dis- 
like the subject and the method. The disadvantag-es are so 
strong- that the process should be condemned. 

527. Battle of Saratoga decisive. — Tell how a teacher may 
build up a history lesson from the following question asked by 
a boy in class : ' ' What if Burgoyne had won the battle of 
Saratoga ? " (9) 

The importance of any battle must be measured by its effect 
upon the contending- armies. I should prepare a lesson upon 
the Battle of Saratog-a by making- the following- outline to show 
the plan of the campaig-n by the British : 

1. The first objective point in the Revolutionary War was 
Boston. General results not decisive. 

2. The second objective point was New York City. 

3. The aim of the British was to control the water connect- 
ion with New York City ; to hold the St. Lawrence River; and 
then to establish a line of defences from the St. Lawrence 
River to New York City by way of Lake Champlain and the 
Hudson River. By opening this way the strength of the 
colonists would be weakened by separating- New Eng-land 
from New York and the other colonies. 



378 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

4. If Burg-oyne had won the battle of Saratoga the princi- 
pal aim in the campaig-n of the British would have been satis- 
fied. Burg-oyne's defeat at Saratog-a left a free connection 
between New Eng-land and the other colonies. 

5. Aside from the point of connection just mentioned the 
victory at Saratog-a influenced the French to aid the Americans 
against the British. This aid on land and sea was a decisive 
factor in the later results of the war. 

In a lesson of this kind I should follow a map or have pupils 
make a progress map to show the locations of Boston, New 
York, the St. Lawrence River, Lake Champlain, Saratoga, 
the Hudson River, Trenton, Princeton, Pennsylvania, and 
Yorktown. A general map of this kind can indicate the pro- 
gress of all the campaigns. 

528. Methods: question, conversational, lecture. — To what 
class of pupils is the question method suited, {b) the conversa- 
tional method, {c) the lecture method ? 

The question method is suited to all grades of pupils. The 
primary work must be by means of questions and answers; 
and in the last grade of the grammar school, exact questions 
are considered the highest test of efficient teaching. The con- 
versational method is especially intended for the first year of 
school work, but its use may be retained through all the ele- 
mentary grades. It is valuable in all private teaching, in 
personal criticism, and in all exercises where mutual interest 
of pupils and teacher is involved. The lecture method is not 
adapted to elementary grade because it presupposes the power 
to gain knowledge largely through the sense of hearing, and 
elementary pupils have not advanced to that degree of mental 
mastery. Its specific use is in advanced work under uni- 
versity organization. 

529. Self-reporting system criticised. — Give two objections to 
the self -reporting system in conduct and scholarship. 

Self-reporting tempts pupils to be deceitful and untruthful ; 
guilty pupils go unpunished; innocent pupils have to share a 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 379 

bad social spirit; the teacher's standard of judg^ing- the whole 
class becomes inaccurate and unfair. In brief, this system 
does not develop proper habits for character. 

530. Assignment of lessons criticised. — («) Criticise each of 
the following ways of assigjiing advanced lessons, and 
in each case suggest a proper assigtiment: (/) {hi history) 
"■Study all about the first voyage of Columbtts and be ready to 
tell me what difiiculties he met in getting aid, and every thi7ig 
of that kind.'' {2) {In civics) ''Find out as much as you can 
from your parents, or from any other source, about the Govern- 
ment of the City of New York.'' (j) (/;z science or nature 
study) ''Take for to-morrow the ne.xt .... pages." {b) State 
with principles founded up07i your reasons, three prijiciples to 
guide in the assignment of lesions. 

(a) (1) Careless work on the part of the teacher. Enoug-h 
work is sug-gested to the earnest student to discourag-e him. 
The average student needs a more direct assignment with 
reference to certain places for it. 

Suggested assignment : 

Why Columbus wished to find a route to India. His plan 
to reach the Indies. Reason for this plan. How viewed by 
the people. Efforts to secure aid. Result. First voyage. 
Equipment. Starting place. Incidents on voyage. Land ! 
Character of natives. 

I would not assign more than the topics preceding the "First 
Voyage" for one lesson. 

(2) Wrong, for most people know very little of the way a city 
is governed. It is a general question not likely to interest 
pupils or engage the attention of the pupil's parent. Some 
parents would probably give undesirable information. 

Suggested assignment: Ask pupils to find out at home, if 
no books are available, who arranges for the lighting of the 
city every night, and who pay for the care of the lights. Or, 
how are school buildings secured ? How are the principals 
and teachers paid ? 



380 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Either of these subjects would represent something- touching- 
the child's life; hence, better subjects. 

(3) Very bad. To assign so much work from a book when 
so much material is at hand is inexcusable. Memory will be 
trained, but imag-ination, reasoning- and judgment are higher 
powers and more delightful ones to eng-ag-e. Sug-g-estion : We 
are to talk about the dragon-fly to-morrow, and I wish you 
to be able to tell then where the drag-on-fiy is often seen and 
why he likes such places. Why is he one of our best insect 
friends? 

(b) Following are the principles to guide in the assignment 
of lessons : 

(1) The ability of the pupil. — It is useless to ask a child to 
do more than he is able. 

(2) The time at his disposal.— A high school teacher made 
the remark that she expected the pupils to work at least one 
hour on her subject. When asked what the pupil would do if 
each teacher required the same amount of time, replied that 
she had not thought of it in that way. 

(3) The ground to be covered. — In our school system a cer- 
tain amount of work must be done each year. To accomplish 
this a teacher must assign enough work each day to cover the 
ground. 

531. Drawing correlated. — Mention three studies with which 
drawing may be correlated. 

Arithmetic, geography, language, history, and science. 
When done by the teacher, drawing appeals to the sense of 
sight, and thus becomes a valuable source of knowledge for 
the pupils. When the pupils make the drawings, the pupils 
are employing their motor activities, thereby exemplifying the 
educational principle of self-activity and also the psychologi- 
cal law that "every idea tends to realize itself in action." 

The teacher should use drawing freely for the sake of illus- 
tration, and pupils should be encouraged to make it a means 
of expressing their thought. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 381 

532. Drawing a group. — State, ajtd illustrate by at least two 
sketches, the necessary steps in teaching children to make a 
drawing of a group of vegetables or fruits. 

(a) Get sufficient number of suitable specimens for the 
lesson. 

(b) Place enough specimens for a group in different parts 
of the room. At least four groups on boards across the aisles 
at the front desks, and two or three further back, in a room of 
42 pupils. 

(c) Ask a pupil near each group to arrange it for a study. 

(d) Get opinion of class in regard to placing. 

(e) Rearrange where necessary. 

(f) Choose best position on paper for group. 

(g) Plan group with few light lines. 

(h) Correct and finish with broad gray lines, slightly deeper 
on shadow side. 

(i) Plan and draw, enclosing form for group. Place Mono- 
gram. 

(j) Grade, name and date on back of paper. 

(k) Class criticism. Time should be taken for this import- 
ant part of the lesson. 

(1) Monitors collect and replace all material. 

533. Punishment : defined, approved, not approved. — (a) What 
is punishment? (b) Describe and illustrate two modes of 
punishment proper for use in school ; tzvo that should not be 
used. 

(a) Punishment is the penalty paid for the violation of the 
rules of conduct, (b) Private talk in which the teacher aims 
to place the matter before the pupil as it really is, and the re- 
sult if such a course is continued. A boy teases a smaller boy 
on the way to school or on the school grounds. He regards 
it as fun. His opinion should change after a short, sincere 
talk with his teacher. 

(b) Detention followed by isolation for repeated tardiness, 
neglect of duty or other wrong-doing. A teacher in our school 



382 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

carelessly left her purse containing a considerable amount in 
her desk while we were at chapel. She missed it on return- 
ing to her room, and it was found in the yard under some 
leaves, where a boy had placed it until he could safely take it 
away. It was found that he had been guilty of smaller thefts, 
and his well-arranged plans in this instance led to his dis- 
missal. 

Nagging.— The unfortunate manner of continually finding 
fault and ignoring the effort, though feeble, that is made. I 
know a pupil who is happy this year in her school life because 
she has been told that she does certain work well— her efforts 
are appreciated and not overlooked because she is unable to 
excel in another line of work. She is not continually reminded 
of her defect. 

Sarcasm. — A teacher has no right to fling his bad temper 
at a defenceless pupil in words that ridicule and injure. A 
teacher of history class in a high school frequently humiliates 
members of his class by ridiculing their lack of knowledge or 
their weak expressions. He could use his time more profitably. 

534. Emulation. — The Jesuits are adversely critised for their 
use of emulatioji. Discuss its use and abuse. 

No teacher of ordinary experience can deny that emulation 
is a legitimate factor in the success of every school. Its use 
by the Jesuits is said to have urged one pupil to perform his 
task better than another could perform it, and thus a spirit of 
undesirable rivalry was aroused. Under the sociological view 
of education, it is held that every student should strive for the 
welfare of all other students as well as for his own good. In 
other words, the use of emulation, as applied by the Jesuits, 
does not harmonize with the modern view of education. Rous- 
seau would not have Emile compare himself with any other 
children. Emile should compare himself with his own past 
self and thus have but one standard for progress. James 
speaks favorably of emulation with one's former self, but he 
puts a far higher value upon honest rivalry with another. See 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 383 

Talks, pages 49 to 54. See also Dexter and Garlick's Psy- 
cholog-y, pages 44, 228. 

535. Analogy. — Define, illustrate and eriticise reasoning by 
analogy. 

Analogy is a kind of reasoning in which an inference is 
made on account of the resemblance of two things. 

Illustration. Port Rico, a former Spanish possession, 
has inhabitants able to control themselves. Then the same is 
true of the Philippine Islands. 

Criticism. Such reasoning is not conclusive. There may 
be many points of likeness, but one great difference can over- 
throw the similarities. Analogy can be used only when the 
points of likeness are overwhelming. For application in nature 
study, see Dexter and Garlick, 179. 

536. Syllogism. — The syllogism is a form of deductive reason- 
ing in which a conclusion is drawn from two known premises. 

Major premise. Human beings are rational. 
Minor premise. You are a human being. 
Conclusion. Therefore you are rational. 

537. Fatigue.— Fatigue is a physical condition in which the 
ability to do work falls below the normal average. Fatigue is 
caused by a waste product in the blood which is formed by 
the tearing down of cells in the performance of work. Nature 
is constantly trying to build up cell tissues as fast as they are 
destroyed. When .the tearing down process exceeds the re- 
construction process, fatigue follows and rest is needed for re- 
cuperation. 

Some of the characteristics of fatigue are "restlessness, lack 
of power of co-ordination, showing itself in the dropping of 
pencils and the like, in slips of speech, and perhaps in uncer- 
tainty in the use of the limbs, twitching movements, decreased 
sensibility, especially of sight and hearing, flushing, unusual 
color of ears ; and among the mental symptoms, irritability, 
loss of memory for common things, loss of curiosity and the 



384 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

power of attention, disturbance of speech, etc."— Burnham in* 
Article on Fatigue, New York Teachers' Monographs, Oc- 
tober, 1901. 

538. Note-books. — What are the chief uses of note-books by 
the pupils? 

The chief uses of note-books are: (1) for reference work in 
class; (2) to record developments made in class and not found 
in the text; (3) to record the assignment. 

When matters are being developed orally in the class the 
attention should not be distracted by taking notes; after 
the topic is somewhat formulated it may be briefly recorded as 
far as necessary to supplement the text. Unless fixed by 
notes the material is likely to be lost. —Young, the Teaching 
of Mathematics, p. 147. 

539. Social stimulus. — Explain meaning and application of 
social stimulus. 

Persons or ideas are called sociable if they are in harmony. 
Sociable means agreeable. Transfer the idea of a sociable 
company of workers to the school, and there apply the thought 
of (a) good will, (b) mutual agreement, (c) working. There 
is a stimulus under such conditions. It does not come wholly 
from the teacher, nor from any one pupil ; each pupil is con- 
tributing something. The stimulus coming from the members 
of a society or group or society is social stimulus. The social 
stimulus is a good working spirit in a school ; it is good pub- 
lic opinion among the pupils ; it is community interest vs. 
selfish individual interest. 

540. Circle of thought. — What is jneant by the circle of 
thought, as used by the Herbartians? 

The circle of thought for any pupil is the limit of personal 
interest of the pupil in the subject-matter of instruction, or in 
matters outside of the school. It is distinctly the work of edu- 
cation to extend the circle of thought so that the pupil may 
become interested in as many lines of investigation as he is 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 385 

capable of carrying on without reaching the result known as 
smattering in education. The five-fold division of the course 
of study in our elementary schools illustrates a many-sided 
interest which should give every pupil the desired circle of 
thought to prepare him for future efficiency. An application 
of extending the circle of thought is found in Lang's Educa- 
tional Creeds, page 150: "A boy spends his play hours in 
fishing, catching birds or butterflies; and he is in danger that 
his fine feeling, sympathetic heart will harden. Would punish- 
ment direct the content of his will to nobler pursuits? Would 
it thoroughly cure him? Certainly not. It would sooner in- 
crease the danger. The thoughtful educator pursues a differ- 
ent course. He seeks to build up a new interest in the 
thought-circle of the boy. He calls his attention to the beauty 
of the flowers, explains to him their nature and various kinds, 
shows him how to raise plants and how to take care of them, 
how to press and dry them. The probabilities are that he will 
spend his recreation hours in cultivating plants, in botanizing, 
and in making a herbarium." 

541. Formal discipline. — Explain formal discipline or formal 
culture. 

This doctrine is used as a standing argument for so-called 
disciplinary education, especially that in pure mathematics 
and classical languages. The assumption is that if the stu- 
dent masters these, he will thereby acquire a mental power 
that can be applied almost equally well to any kind of practi- 
cal or professional life. This gymnastic theory of education 
involves the idea that it does not matter upon what the mind is 
exercised, provided only the exercise be vigorous and long- 
continued. The inadequacy of the theory lies in the fact that 
it ignores or underestimates the importance of the choice of 
subjects, both for their gymnastic efficiency, and their ulti- 
mate worth in developing the individual. A life of crime de- 
velops acuteness of intellect, but it does not develop good citi- 
zens. Again, mental alertness in philology, or grammar, or 



386 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

hig-her algebra, does not insure corresponding- alertness in 
those fields in which there is neither knowledge nor interest. 
The mind is never efficient in any department of endeavor in 
which either education or experience has not provided rich 
and abundant masses of apperceiving- ideas. — DeGarmo in 
Dictionary of Philosophy. 

The theory of formal discipline asserts that mental power 
developed in one subject is usable in any other. — Home, Prin- 
ciples, p. 66. 

The arg-ument against the theory that there are distinct 
faculties in the human mind is contradicted by modern scien- 
tific research. Home does not believe in rejecting the theory 
altog-ether, but he would modify it and express it in this way: 
"Mental power developed in one subject is applicable to any 
other in direct proportion to their similarity. This principle 
means the greater the similarity between two subjects the 
g-reater the applicability of mental power developed in one to 
the other ; the less similarity, the less applicability." — Prin- 
ciples, pag-e 71. 

542. Visualization.— ^x^/(3;/;f and ilhcstrate visualization. 

Visualization is fixing an idea in the mind by means of the 
sense of sight. 

Aim. To teach list of spelling- words. 

Write words on board. Cover words with chart and ask 
class to spell as many as they can remember. At first they 
will not g-et all the words. The same process should be re- 
peated until class can write all the words without aid of 
board. They learned those words by the process of visualiza- 
tion. 

One practical illustration of training in visualization is the 
practice of teaching memory selections, declensions, classifica- 
tions, or other matter, from written forms upon the blackboard. 
This plan invites comfortable posture of pupils and teacher ; 
class attention, interest, and concentrated effort; social feeling 
and consequent social stimulus; the application of the law of 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 387 

contig-uity; and, as a result, commendable self-activity and 
desirable habits of study. 

543. Inhibition. — Show meaning and application of inhibition 
in teaching. 

Inhibition means withholding or stopping- any form of psy- 
chical or physical activity. An extreme effect of fear may 
inhibit respiration and circulation for a moment. A child's 
attempt to speak on the stage may inhibit the action of the 
salivary glands so much that the mouth seems dry. Anger, 
happiness or fatigue may partially inhibit all mental activity 
for a short time. This application of inhibition shows the 
necessity of maintaining uniform working conditions in school. 

Another use -of inhibition comes under habituation. Sup- 
pose certain tendencies to evil are observed. Shall we try to 
inhibit the tendencies by breaking off abruptly or shall we 
try to work gradually toward disuse by substituting desirable 
habits? Thus we find the words disuse, i7ihibition, substitution 
and direction under methods of treating impulses, instincts and 
habits. 

544. Suggestion. — Define and illustrate suggestion as used 
in educatio7i. 

Suggestion is the tendency of consciousness to believe in and 
act on any given idea. — Home, Principles of Ed., 284. 

Suggestion is useful with pupils in all cases where the act 
does not demand the time and the power of personal reflection 
by the pupil. The pupil may be thinking well upito a certain 
point, but there he hesitates. A word, a sentence, a look 
or a gesture from -the teacher may be enough to help him 
continue the train of thought. Thus in grammar, a pupil 
may have completed all the analysis and parsing except- 
ing one word in a sentence. He has said that word is an 
attribute complement but he fails to decide the part of speech. 
The teacher asks what parts of speech may be used as an at- 
tribute complement ; the pupil names the three and then selects 
the right one. 



388 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

The teacher's g-lance at a boy's shoes may be sugg-estion 
enough for next morning ; pointing to his own head may suggest 
the use of comb and brush; the teacher's appearance is a 
powerful suggestion; the teacher's penmanship, blackboard 
work, conversation, personality, — all work strongly by sugges- 
tion. This shows the relation between suggestion and imita- 
tion, law of association, etc. 

545. Connotation of terms. — Connotation of terms is the 
meaning of terms as expressed in a good definition. A good 
definition involves genus, species and differentia, and it ex- 
emplifies these rules: (a) contains all the attributes of the 
term defined; (b) uses clear and definite language; (c) is af- 
firmative rather than negative. 

546. Extension and intention of terms. — Explain and apply. 

Both intention and extension are words used in logic and 
philosophy. Webster says intention means "the collective 
attributes, qualities, or marks that make up a complex general 
notion; the comprehension, content, or connotation; — opposed 
to extension, extent, or sphered Extension means "the capac- 
ity of a concept or general term to include a greater or smaller 
number of objects; — correlative of intention.'''' 

Illustration. Take the noun tree. Its intention includes the 
characteristics of vegetable kingdom; composed of roots, trunk, 
branches; requires light, heat and moisture; used for fuel, 
building, shade, ornament, etc. This intention or compre- 
hension of the term tree is very broad. Now apply its extension 
and we find that it covers pine tree, maple tree, willow, etc., 
making a very wide use. Again, take apple tree for intention 
and extension. Its intention is not so broad as the term tree 
alone; nor is its extension so wide. 

The use of intention and extension in educational work de- 
mands precision in thought in every process. Hence, the need 
of definite observation, clear percepts, vivid images, accurate 
memory, etc., in forming general notions. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 389 

547. Imitation. — Discuss the imitativeness of children of four 
to six years of age, in its relation to their dei'elopniejit. 

Of all animals, the man animal is the most imitative. The 
first acts which the child of the kinderg-arten ag-e does are 
those due to instinct. These are imitations of the acts of his 
ancestors. Among- them are the desire for play, for freedom, 
for examining- strange things, etc. Through the gratification 
of these desires he develops physically and gains knov^ledge 
of his environment. He imitates those w^ith whom he is thrown 
in contact consciously and unconsciously. The languag-e he 
hears becomes his languag-e, the countenance he sees modifies 
his countenance. Manner of walking-, sitting-, standing, etc., 
all become a part of his acquired experience. All of these acts 
are steps in the gradual adjustment to environment. The 
models he imitates serve either as a check to his development 
or as an aid to it. Instructive imitations, imitations of 
the simple and the complex acts of others, help to give 
physical and mental determination to the child's develop- 
ment. A further recognition of this fact implies that the 
power of imitation is continuously operative until the individual 
has reached his complete development. Not only this, but one 
generation advances beyond that of its predecessor by imitat- 
ing its successes and shunning its failures. — See Home's 
Philosophy of Education, 175-187. 

548. Abstraction. — What is abstractioti ? Illustrate. 

Abstraction is the mental process involved in retaining the 
common qualities which belong to all the individuals of a cer- 
tain class and rejecting the uncommon qualities. A complete 
process of abstraction results in the concept or general notion. 
It is synonymous with conception. 

549. Action : reflex, impulsive, automatic, deliberative. — Define 
and illustrate each. 

Reflex action is the process of changing an afferent nerve 
current into an efferent nerve current without the aid of the 
brain. Illustration : — I put my finger on a warm object ; the 



390 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

afferent nerve carries the messag-e to the nerve center, where 
the efferent nerve receives the return messag^e to remove the 
finger. This action takes place without the aid of the brain 
and is thus called reflex action. 

Impulsive action is that in which the entrance of an idea in- 
to consciousness is immediately followed by the appropriate 
action. As an illustration, suppose I am hurrying- to the post 
office to mail a letter. While on the car I see a friend from a 
distant city. I run at once to g-reet him. This is impulsive 
action. 

Automatic action is habitual action. Any action becomes 
automatic as soon as it is carried on without any intervention of 
the will. An illustration of this is the fing-er action in playing- 
a piano after a person has become accustomed to that kind of 
action. 

Deliberate action is that in which (1) action is sug-gested to 
the mind (2) the mind considers whether it will actor not, and 
(3) the will makes the decision. This is illustrated in the de- 
cision of many teachers who beg-in to consider the advisability 
of teaching- in New York City, think of the matter a year or 
two, and then decide for or ag-ainst the action. 

550. Nature study: aims, defects, suitable lessons.—/. State 
what you conceive to be three important aims of nature-study 
in the eleinentary school, (j). 2. Mentioit three mistakes in 
method commonly made by teachers in lessojts on plants, and 
in the case of each state briefly the proper procedure in the 
same premises. (6). 

1. (a) To create and strengthen a permanent love for, and 
interest in, nature, (b) To develop the powers of observation. 
(c) To impart useful knowledg-e. 

2. (a) They choose unfamiliar and uncommon plants with 
the idea that there is more in them to interest the child and 
more to be learned from them, forgetting- that the knowledge 
that the child already has is to be of great assistance in arous- 
ing his interest and causing him to acquire new facts, (b) 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 391 

They tell the pupils too much about the plants, (c) They 
make the lesson or series of lessons extend over too short a 
period of time, g-iving-the child too little opportunity for obser- 
vation and reflection. 

PROPER PROCEDURE. 

(a) Produce several cotton seeds. Tell pupils what they 
are, if no pupil is able to tell. Talk with them about the way 
to plant them and to care for them. Let them plant and care 
for them in the school room. 

(b) The pupils watch over the little plants from the time 
they appear above the ground till they have grown to some 
size (perhaps, a foot high) . During this time pupils ask a great 
many questions, some of which should be answered, others re- 
ferred to the study of the plant itself. Later, if time is lack- 
ing for the full development of the plant, the cotton boll is 
brought out, examined, discussed, the seeds are found, etc. 
Then the complete life history of the plant is gone over and 
the various uses of the plant. 

(c) Is answered by the fact that this work has occupied a 
period of several months. 

551. Too much written work. — Thef^e is a feeling that too 
much written work is called for i7i our schools. Give three 
valid objections that are made. 

1. It is a device for occupying the time of pupils for the 
sake of giving release to the teacher. 

2. The papers are not criticised and returned to pupils and 
so it is a waste of energy. 

3. The habits of carelessness and inaccuracy are a result 
of number 1. Pupils know that their work is not examined 
and they are satisfied to submit written productions that are 
far below the standard of oral exercises in that same class. 
Much of the experience in later life depends upon the power of 
oral communication of thought. So much written work is not 
a guarantee that the pupil will be able to do what is required 
from him in the line of oral communication. 



392 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

552. Dr. Maxwell's suggestions in arithmetic. — "Great improve- 
ment has been made in teaching- mathematics since the issue 
of the circular of the Board of Superintendents on that subject 
last fall. More attention yet, however, must be given. The 
following- sug-g-estions are not yet fully carried out in all 
schools : 

(a) The pupils should be allowed to spend some portion of 
the mathematics period each day in working- as rapidly as 
each pupil can out of the textbook. 

(b) That there should be rapid drill each day in the funda- 
mental rules ; in addition, making- sure of the sum of each 
line before proceeding- to the next. 

(c) That oral arithmetic should be given each day and should 
precede the written work. 

Teachers should be asked to begin this work with the first 
day of the term. It is no uncommon thing to find teachers, a 
month after the opening of the term, who have not commenced 
this work, though their intentions are admirable. 

Many teachers spend a month or more reviewing the work 
of the grade below. This is a waste of time. It is not sur- 
prising that children seem to have forgotten what they have 
learned. Let the teacher take up some new work and if she 
finds that the children need some review in connection with 
the new thing let the review be given incidentally. Many 
teachers spend time complaining of what the teacher below 
her left undone which could be more profitably employed in 
doing the advanced work of her own grade. This is particu- 
larly true with regard to arithmetic. In arithmetic, espec- 
ially, the class should be taught in at least two sections." 
(September, 1907). 

553. Drill in observation. — Suggest a simple plan of drill in 
observation for elementary pupils. 

Take the reading lesson, select some familiar and interest- 
ing portion of the work already covered, and then follow this 
plan : 



TYPICAL QUKSTIONS AND ANSWERS 393 

1. Have pupils read the sentences, close books, and then 
reproduce orally or on paper. Test by opening book and 
comparing with the original. 

2. Copy selections accurately and neatly from the board or 
from books. Insist upon absolute accuracy. 

3. Learn quotations and several memory exercises and then 
reproduce them in writing again insisting upon absolute ac- 
curacy. In all three of these exercises the insistence upon 
accuracy will tend to habituate the children to that mode of 
thinking and acting. 

554. Writing as a penalty. — Name objections to reguirmg 
pupils to %urite words or sentences many tiiJtes as a penalty of 
violating some rule of -conduct. 

It is a waste of time; it gives bad habits of penmanship ; 
pupils become nervous and angry ; the penalty becomes asso- 
ciated with the task instead of with the violation and thus the 
pupil is likely to increase his feeling of dislike for this study. 
See 526. 

555. Value of phonics. — State two objects of teaching phonics. 
To train the organs of hearing to distinguish sounds and to 

train the organs of speech in making those sounds. 

556. Two trials in spelling. — Why should not a pttpil be al- 
lowed a second trial in oral spelling ? 

It may cause inattention and encourage guessing. 

557. Syllabication.— What is the advantage of teaching syl- 
labication ? 

It aids in pronunciation and also shows how to divide the 
word at the end of a line. 

558. What to observe in studying spelling. — In studyi7ig a 
spelling lesson to what three important things should the 
pupil give attention? 

To the pronunciation of the word, to memorizing the form of 
the word, and to the correct use of the word. 



394 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

559. Relation of climate to animal life.— S^om the relation of 
clijnate to animal life by distribution and characteristics of 
animals in North America. 

Arctic coasts, polar bear, musk-ox, the extreme of cold. 

Farther south, moose, elk, caribou, reindeer and small fur- 
bearing- animals. Intensely cold and forests. 

Western highlands, grizzly bear, bighorn sheep, Rocky 
Mountains goat, American panther. Cold and rough country. 

Eastern part south of Great Lakes, domestic animals have 
taken place of native animals, horses, cattle, sheep, hog-s, 
chickens. Temperate zone. 

Southwest. Mixed animals of South and North America, 
as w^ell as scorpions, lizards, and other reptiles. Dry, arid. 

Southern lowlands. AUig-ators, crocodiles, paroquets, hum- 
ming- birds, etc. Hot and moist. 

560. Lessons on latitude, Arctic life. — Describe a good method 
of teaching the following geographical ideas to children: Lat- 
itude, Arctic life? (6) 

(a) Aim. To teach idea of latitude. 

Preparation. We are to learn today what is meant in g-eog- 
raphy by latitude. You may all point to the north. (Chil- 
dren point tow^ard front of room). Correct. Point toward the 
south. (Children point toward back of room). Correct. 

Presentatiojt. Count the seats in a row in this room from 
front to back. How many? Seven. Which is the middle 
seat in;each row? The fourth from each end. The pupil in 
fourth seat of first row may stand in the aisle. Move forward 
toward the north one seat, pupil in next row do the same. 
Next, etc. How far north from the middle seat is each pupil? 
One seat. How is this distance shown? By the line of seats. 
Return to seats. Go south of the middle, two seats How far 
south is each pupil? Two seats. How shown? By the line 
of seats. Third pupil move south one more seat. How far 
south is he? Three seats south. How shown? By the line 
of seats. What is the relation of each line of seats to the 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 395 

middle line? They are parallel to it. Now, suppose we call 
the middle line of seats the equator and the distance of the 
first line of seats north one degree north, that of the first line 
south one degree south. The second" will then be how many 
degrees south ? It will be two degrees south. What name 
shall we apply to these distances north and south, supposing 
the middle line of seats to be the equator? We will call it 
latitude. 

Now, let us go to the globe. The globe represents what? 
It represents the earth. Find the equator. What do you find 
running around the globe parallel to the equator? There are 
lines parallel to the equator. What did each line of seats in- 
dicate? Distance north or south of the middle line. What 
do these lines indicate, then? Distance north or south of the 
equator. What do we call that distance? We call it latitude. 
These lines then must be parallels of what? They must be 
parallels of latitude. 

Now, let us try hard to say to ourselves just what latitude 
is. Latitude is defined. Next, let us say to ourselves just 
what parallels -of latitude are. Parallels defined. 

Application. Find on globe how many degrees north or 
south of the equator certain places located on the given paral- 
lells are. Find three places in 10° south latitude, three places 
in 20° north latitude. 

Aim to teach idea of Arctic life. 

Prepa7'ation. Today we are to learn something about the 
living things in the Arctic regions. What is the climate in 
those regions ? It is cold. Is there any summer there? Yes. 
What of its length? It is very short. 

P7'esentatioii. At what season of the year do plants make 
the most of their growth in our climate? In summer. Would 
they grow as much as they do if the summer were very short? 
They would not. Would we probably have as many kinds of 
plants as we now have? No. From this what shall we con- 
clude in regard to the plants of the Arctic regions ? They 
must be few in number and small. 



396 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Teacher here g-ives detailed description of plants, shows 
pictures, etc. (Then follows division on animal life. ) 

What wild animals remain active in winter here? Only 
those having- warm coats of fur. Since it is very cold the 
g-reater part of the year in Arctic lands, what kind of animals 
will be found there? Only those having the thickest coats of 
fur. 

Teacher tells of animals and shows pictures. 

How do we dress in winter? In furs and woolens. How 
must people dress then in these Arctic lands ? They must 
dress in warm furs. What kind of food do we relish most in 
winter? Animal foods that contain plenty of fat. What then 
is probably the food of the inhabitants of Arctic lands ? That 
containing large quantities of fat. Can you think of two 
reasons why this must be so? For warmth and because of the 
scarcity of plants. 

Teacher tells of Eskimo life showing pictures of homes, oc- 
cupations, etc. 

Application. Pupils reproduce orally and in writing what 
they have been taught, copy simple sketches of Arctic scenes 
to accompany and illustrate their written work on the subject. 

The above subject-matter ought to be divided into at least 
two lessons. 



Chapter XVII. Answers in Methods for 
Assistant to Principal. 

561. Exercises in reading before textbook.— (rt) Describe three 
exercises zvhich should be given primary children before pre- 
senting the reading book. Give psychological reasons, {b) 
Give with reasons specific cautions to be observed in teaching 
phonics to primary children. (4) 

The method of reading- employed in our school is that known 
as the McCloskey Method. It is founded upon strong psycho- 
log-ical principles. 

I. Since attendance is necessary as a first requisite in the 

education which the school extends to the child 
the school is presented as a form of commu- 
nity life in which the child shares the inheri- 
tance of his race, and is taught to use his 
own powers for social ends. Through con- 
versations, nature lessons, games and songs 
he is made to feel happy and at home. He 
soon learns to give of his store of wisdom 
(small though it may be) to others. He 
learns to talk not timidly, but freely, joy- 
fully. He has learned from the beginning that 
school is a process of living, not some dread- 
ed unknown process for future living. 

II. Recognition of principle "From whole to part." 

1. Story told of "The Kid", a story taken from the 

Talmud. 

(a) As a whole to give idea and spirit, 

(b) In parts, showing logical order of incidents. 

(c) As a whole to retain unity. 

2. One paragraph told by children and written 

upon board. Then read from blackboard. 



398 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

3. One sentence attended to, then single words (sight 

cards) presented. 
Note. The reading of the poem by the teacher 
has created in the children a desire for the 
ability to read for themselves. 

4. After the entire lesson is known in script the 

printed pamphlet is presented. 
Note. No written language, spelling, penman- 
ship, or phonics are done until the printed 
matter has been introduced after at least forty 
words are known as wholes. 

III. "In bringing a child into harmony with his environ- 
ment", says Mr. Maxwell, "it is necessary to 
give him the use of his hands." Many of our 
children have not attended the kindergarten 
and have no idea of manual work. Seat 
work must be taught before the introduction 
of reading, as classes are taught ingroups and 
one group must be taught to do independent 
manual work while the other group is reading. 

Summary. I. Free, happy attendance. II. Use of his 
hands for independent work. III. Much preliminary black- 
board conversation and sight card work before presenting the 
primer to a child. 

(b) Cautions on phonics. 

I. After forty or fifty words are thoroughly known at 
sight, it is safe to begin phonics. To guard 
against halting in reading, words are first 
established as wholes in the child's mind. 

II. A strong motive is created by directing attention of 
pupils to the fact that they must not depend on 
others to tell them all new words; they must 
learn to make them out for themselves. Caution, 
State the aim to your pupils ; avoid an un- 



ADVANCED METHODS 399 

known road toward an unknown g"oal in creat- 
ing- the interest necessary to call forth eifort. 

III. Recalling- is easier when several avenues of association 

have been appealed to. Therefore children 
learn to write as they sound. 

IV. Remember that imitation is strongest in the tiny child. 

(a) Teach the child to "listen sharply", (b) 
Take one child at a time, (c) Let teacher be 
certain in making- her own sounds correctly, 
allowing- child to touch org-ans of speech when 
necessary. 

V. Observe principle that the mind naturally proceeds 
from whole to part, (written phonics.) 
VI. Remem})er that the work of the lA is the foundation 
for all later life. Therefore one cannot be too 
careful in training- for 

1. Distinctions (depending on neatness and ac- 

curacy of contact of vocal org-ans. Use models, 
teacher and pictures.) 

2. Firmness (depending on many drills.) King's 

rhj^thmic gymnastics are recommended. 

3. Fluency (easy transition from one sound to an- 

other; practice recommended.) 

562. Ways of teaching the meaning of words.—Give several 
ways of teaching the meaning of new words to pupils in the 
6 A grade. Illustrate. 

The meaning of new words may be taught to 6A pupils as 
follows : 

1. From the context, when this meaning is clearly 

suggested by the thought of the selection. 

2. By using the dictionary when the definition there 

given is clearer than the context would be. 
Illustration: 



400 



METHODS IN EDUCATION 



Up from the south at break of day 
Bring-ing- to Winchester fresh dismay 
The affrighted air with a shudder bore 
Like a herald in haste to the chieftain's door 
A terrible grumble and rumble and roar. 

In this stanza a * 'break of day" and "af- 
frig-hted" might be understood from the con- 
text, while "dismay" and "herald" would be 
referred to the dictionary. 

3. By word analysis; i. e., etymolog-y, or stem, pre- 

fix, suffix. Illustration: 

Trans port = to carry + across 

Pro cession = the act of + proceeding* 

Pres ence — state of + being present 

4. Many words are understood bjf children when 

the teacher has previously used them. A 
blackboard list accompanying- such use is ex- 
cellent. Illustrations : 

Radiator; reduction; sig-nature; parallel; finan- 
cial crisis, rate, percentag-e, meridian. 

5. Historical talks about words are interesting-. Many 
words in our language easily lend themselves to this method : 
Columbia's grand oriflamme. 

The forum Bolivia 

Montreal civics 

Venezuela cavalier 

6. Objective teaching most clearly recalls others : 



Use object 



cacao 

mahogany 

bamboo 

borax 

nitrate of soda 

pampas grass 



Use picture 



The Incas 

cypress tree 

plaza 

landscape 

mantilla 

Vesuvius 



ADVANCED METHODS 401 

563. Difficulties in teaching English to foreigners.— ^SV^?/^ foitr 
characteristic difficulties met i7i teaching English to foreign- 
ers. Describe a method that will meet these diff cullies. (4) 

The Italian, the Assyrian, the Russian meet together in our 
"foreign classes." Our course of study states as one of its 
educational aims, "to give a body of ideas and a trend of ac- 
tion that will assist the child to become an intelligent and 
patriotic citizen." This aim must be accomplished through a 
common medium, — that of the English language. 

The Russian, through years of repression, has become de- 
pressed, and his spirit must be elevated ; the Italian and As- 
syrian, both passionate, sometimes over-energetic, must be 
curbed ; the emotions of all must be trained. Hence arises 
our first difficulty. 

I. Lack of esprit-de-corps. 

I recommend group work and participation in 
patriotic exercises, calling for the exercise of 
the spirit of "each for all, and all for each." 
II. Reticence on part of timid foreigner is another diffi- 
culty. He is afraid of being "laughed at." 
Do not say "Don't be afraid." This only 
makes him more self-conscious. Rather make 
"interest in work at hand" so strongly felt 
that he will forget himself. 
In group work, where a number of children are 
working in the making of one object, talking 
being permitted, the reticent child quickly 
sees the need for language and avails himself 
of his opportunity. 
III. Difficulties in speaking our language. 

1. Misunderstood words, as, "In making a dress 

we cut the talks (tucks) out around the neck. 

2. Literal translations ; as, in describing a sore 

throat a child exclaims "I got it in the neck." 
German "Ich habe es im hals." 



402 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

3. Peculiarities of foreig-n lang-uage introduced in- 
to our own. Italian in trying- to say "Give 
me a drink of water," says "Giva mea drink 
watr. " 

For all of these difficulties I recommend much exercise in 
careful ear -and voice training- throug-h music and phonics, 
much individual help, and perfect models. In speaking- of 
models one cannot be too careful. A foreign child was heard 
to say, "Leave me alone." When corrected replied, "You 
taug-ht me the verse : 

Leave them alone and they'll come home 
Bringing their tails behind them." 

Another foreigner, "I am thinking on the answer," when 
corrected replied that the teacher had taught : 

"Whatsoever things are pure,' whatsoever things are true, 
think on these things." 

Other literal translations make havoc of our rules of syntax. 

"I'll go get my eat," "It fails me six cents," etc. 

Correct patiently the wrong, present the perfect, work and 
wait, keeping in mind that the general aim is to make the 
wanderer proud of the land of his adoption, eager and anxious 
to speak its language carefully and correctly. Create in him 
a spirit of love for its history and literature. Allow him the 
use of every possible avenue of expression, — eyes, face, lips, 
hands, feet. Dramatic work is excellent. As the expression 
has been, so will the expression be and when we know truly 
what is within, soul touches soul, no matter what language is 
spoken, and we are prepared to educate, to lead him forth, the 
dreaded school boy foreigner. 

Consult Straubenmuller's article on Teaching English to 
Foreigners, p. 43 of number III of volume I of School Work. 

564. Unitary analysis. — What is meant by utiitary analysis 
in arithmetic? Illustrate by a problein. Solve this or some 
other problem by sojne other method and show where each 
would be applicable, ( 8) 



ADVANCED METHODS 403 

Unitary analysis is reasoning- to and from the unit. 
Problem: 6 horses cost $420. What will 12 horses cost? 
The unit considered in this problem is the cost of 1 horse. 
$420=cost of 6 horses (6 units). 
$70=cost of 1 horse (1 unit). 

6 

$70 X 12=rcost of 12 horses. 

The place for this method according- to course of study is 
4th year where two step analysis is introduced. 
Another method : 

12=6X2 

12 horses cost 2 times cost of 6 horses. 
$420 
X2 



$840 
The ratio of this problem would be clear even in the third 
year when the multiplication of three orders has been taught. 

565. Multiplication of decimals. — Show how the progress of 
multiplying numbers, involving decimals, may be explained 
through the fundamental principles of the decimal notation 
without referring to common fractiofis. (4.) 

.IX. 1^.01 

Cut a sheet of paper into 10 strips. Cut each strip into 10 
pieces. Count pieces into which whole paper is cut. What 
part of whole is one piece? Ans. .01. 

It has previously been taug-ht that the system of notation 
applicable to the left of the point (for whole numbers) applies 
on the rig-ht side of the point as well. Since the place for one 
tenth is immediately to the rig-ht of the point (.1) the place for 
one one-hundredth is the second place to the right .01. There 
being no tenths, a cipher fills the vacancy. 

566. What part one fraction is of another. — Invent an example 
finding what part 07te number is of another each of the num- 



404 



METHODS IN EDUCATION 



bers being fractional ; solve the p?-oble]n ; use a diagram and 
letter and explain the diagram. (4J 

Problem. A boug^ht \ an acre of land and g-ave away \ of 
an acre. What part of A's portion was given away? 



A E D H::= whole field 
AEG C=i (A boug-ht) 
A E F B=i (given away) 
A E F ^-\ of A E G C (by 
observation.) 




H 
Hence, \- 

Another answer for 566. 
What part of i is i? 



of 



E 



X 



D 




Let A C represent any number. 

A F represent one-half of the number. 

Let G I represent the same number. 

Let G M represent one-third the same number. 

To find what part of A F, G M is. 

Divide A C into six equal parts. 



ADVANCED METHODS 405 

The line X Y falls on K M, the division line for one-third. 

But X Y is two-sixths of the whole number. 

Dividing- the number into six equal parts divides A For one- 
half into three parts, and A Y represents two-thirds of A F. 
A Y also equals G M or one-third. G M equals two-thirds of 
A F, or one-third is two-thirds of one-half. 

567. Ideas and thoughts in history. Outline on Growth of the 
Union. — Quotation which stated that the important featicre of 
teaching history is to have childre?! get the idea and thought 
and not mere words. Illustrate from lesson-whole an effective 
method of accomplishing this end. {8). 

"Ideas and thoug-hts" are the content of history. They are 
the will of man "Writ larg-e. " To discover them is to discover 
the spirit that actuated the people of any given period, and to 
note how this spirit expressed itself in the conduct of the in- 
dividual or the nation. Such discovery develops the judge- 
ment — a training- most necessary to the citizen who must be 
able to feel the spirit of the ag-e in which he lives, in order to 
act with any deg-ree of stability amidst the confusion arising- 
in any popular g-overnment. It is not knowledge of a series 
of facts, but the power to find the cause and judge of the prob- 
able outcome, and a conception of ideals, that make history 
worth while; that we may know enough "to love mercy, to 
deal justly and to walk humbly with our God." 

Such, however, must be the work of the recitation ; the child, 
being immature and without the wide experience and broader 
knowledge of the adult, could hardly make a just interpreta- 
tion, not, at least, until he has been helped to relate and in- 
terrelate the facts he learned by private study. 

The Revolutionary period 1760-1789 will be found to have 
for its content not so much rebellion as a desire for union ; 
union against England to be sure, but still union, and that on 
the basis of the rights of Englishmen. Later this becomes 
union on the basis of the rights of man, resulting in the Dec- 
laration of Independence and actuating the entire Revolution- 



406 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

ary war; though their ideal^Union — was still far from being' 
attained even when the war was brought to its successful 
close. 

One of the best means for developing the historic sense is to 
ask children to make an orderly arrangement of facts. Each 
of the facts will have an idea which differentiates it, or one 
which gives it fellowship with the rest. Cardinal facts 
should be noted; irrelevant matter eliminated. Every event 
should be shown to be an outcome of the past, an effect as 
well as a cause, changing the future by its results upon public 
sentiment. Phases of leading ideas should be discovered and 
events arranged according to the principles of co-ordination 
and subordination, thus developing not memory alone, but 
reason and judgment as well. 

Such interrelated knowledge concerning the Revolutionary 
period would stand somewhat as follows : 

THE GROWTH OF UNION. (1760-1789). 

A. Union against England. 

1. Union for Rights of Englishmen. 

(a) Committee of Correspondence. 

(b) Stamp Act Congress and Declaration of 
Rights. 

(c) Boston Tea Party. 

(d) Lexington, Concord, Bunker Hill. 

2. Union for the Rights of Man. 

(a) Declaration of Independence. 

(b) Revolutionary War. 

B. Union on domestic questions. 

1. Union on the basis of state sovereignty. 

(a) Articles of Confederation. 

(b) Internal disputes. 

(c) Financial depression. 

(d) Insolence of foreign nations. 

(e) Sharp Rebellion. 

2. Union on the basis of nation sovereignty. 



ADVANCED METHODS 407 

(a) Adoption and ratification of the Constitution. 

(b) Election of Washington. 

568. Chicago as a type in geography. — Make an 02itlzne for 
the study of the city of Chicago, or some other city in the United 
States for a ^ B class. (8) 

Outline for New York City. (An industrial and commercial 
center). 

I. Physical conditions affecting- its growth and import- 
ance. 

a. Location. 

b. Surface. 

c. Climate. 

d. Harbor 
Rivers. 

II. Great steamship and railroad lines terminating- in and 
about New York City. 

III. Study of streets and avenues and means of communi- 

cation. 

IV. Chief business localities. 
V. Chief manufactures. 

VI. Points of interest. 

Parks, museums, bridg-es, tunnels and water supply. 
Schools and other public and historical buildings. 



Chapter XVIII. Answers in School Management 
for Assistant to Principal. 

569. Promotions : Principles. — (a) State the principles tinder- 
lying a good system of promotion in elementary schools. (b) 
Describe a system you have observed for promoting bright 
children as rapidly as their ability will permit, (c) Defend 
this systejn. 

(a) It is desirable to accomplish two things by promotion ; 
"First, to advance children as rapidly as is consistent with 
the healthy operation of their intellectual powers ; and second, 
to secure as nearly as may be uniformity of attainments 
among- the pupils of a class." This shows that physiological, 
social and economic principles are basis for any system of 
promotion. It is quoted from Dr. Maxwell's article on "The 
Examination and Promotion of Pupils" in Teacher's Mono- 
graph, December, 1900. 

(b) and (c) The system of promotion in which I have been 
most deeply interested is that in force in one of the schools of 
this city. It follows the modern tendency in combining and 
adapting many well known systems. Its basis is the regular 
semi-annual promotion, though teachers are kept with their 
classes one year at least (whenever possible), thus saving the 
vaj.uable time usually spent by both teacher and pupils in be- 
coming adjusted to their new environment. 

Individual promotions at any time during the year are a 
feature of the system. Two considerations govern these: First, 
the removal of any obstruction to the school system — foreign- 
ers, over-aged children, defectives (mental, moral or physi- 
cal); and, second, the grouping of children according to abil- 
ity. For children likely to clog the system "Special Classes" 
are formed. They are taught somewhat after the Batavia 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 409 

plan — two teachers for a group of forty or fifty, one for class 
instruction, one to give individual help. The bright pupil is 
promoted in accordance with the Pueblo idea : he enters as an 
individual, is promoted and graduated as an individual. With 
due regard to his age and health he is allowed to pass from 
grade to grade reg-ular or special at any time during the 
term ; sometimes working alone, sometimes with a group, 
and omitting many drills and some connecting links. 

The rank and file of the school are graded in accordance 
with the requirements of the New York system, but especially 
bright groups of somewhat uniform attainments work in ac- 
cordance with the Cambridge idea— one teacher for a class, 
but doing the work of one and a half or two terms in six 
months. 

This seems to me the best, because it is the simplest, most 
elastic system I have ever observed. It cares for the slow 
child, yet pushes the bright who must soon be a wage earner. 
It is well adapted to our great shifting- foreign population 
yet in perfect harmony with the requirements of the New York 
Course of Study. 

570. Games for first year. — Mention fom^ games suitable to be 
played by first year children and describe the method of play- 
ing t%uo of these. Indicate the part taken by the teacher. 

I have written many of the games played by our first year. 
Such changes from course of study, as have been made by me, 
have been approved by the Director of physical culture. In 
writing my games, I have adapted Froebel's Kindergarten 
games and Miss Hofer's Singing Games. 

1. The Snail. 

2. The Stream. 

3. The Ladder. 

4. Bean Bag. 

5. Round and Round the Village. 

6. Squirrels in Hollow Tree. 

7. Wall Tag, Relay Race. 



410 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

The Snail : 

Children form in line (holding- hands) then march to form 
spiral, the leader turns about and unwinds the spiral ; 
marching- on the same spiral is repeated, but upon reaching 
the center the leader passes under raised arms of the other 
children, coming out at one side of the spiral. Caution to 
children: ''Keep hold of hands." 

Upon entering spiral, class sing-s : 

Hand in hand you see us well. 

Creep like a snail into its shell 
Ever nearer, ever nearer, ever closer, ever closer 

Who would have thought this tiny shell 
Could have held us all so well ? 

Upon unwinding spiral, class sings : — 

Hand in hand you see us well 

Creep like a snail out of its shell 

Ever farther, ever farther, ever wider, ever wider 
Who would have thoug-ht this tiny shell 

Could have held us all so well ? 

The Stream:— 

Class form a ring-, holding hands. Two children stand in 
center of ring, hands clasped. Other children are placed in 
ring to represent trees and flowers. At the first words of 
song, "Give, said the little stream", the leader in outside 
ring marches forward under bridge around trees and flowers. 

"Give," said the little stream, "Give away, give away." 

' 'Give, ' ' said the little stream, as it hurried do^n the hill, 
"I'm small, I know, but wherever I go, 
The g-rass grows greener still." 

Cho. — Singing, singing, all the day, 
Give away, oh! give away 
Singing-, singing all the day 
Give, oh ! g-ive away. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 411 

During- second verse children in circle raise arms, fing-ers 
moving- represent rain drops. As they fall upon heads of 
flowers, these raise heads and uplift arms, open mouth 
(slig-htly) to drink in falling- drops and are refreshed. 
"Give," said the gentle rain, "Give away, give away." 
"Give," said the g-entle rain as it fell upon the flower 
"I'll raise their drooping heads ag-ain as I fall upon the 
flowers." 

Cho. — Sing-ing-, etc. 



As I fall upon the flowers. 

I have selected the above g-ames because there are no "look- 
ers on." All children are active at all times. 

The part to be taken by the teacher was cited so aptly and 
beautifully by Frederich Froebel, a "hundred years ag-o, " I 
cannot answer you better than to quote his words : "Come, let 
us live with our children." Play with them? "Never," says 
Froebel, "ask a child to do what you would feel ashamed to 
do yourself." Be, at all times, their leader, ag-ain let a child 
lead. In the playground, in the background, be the umpire, 
the inspiratory sympathetic head. With all there need be no 
loss of that dignity which the little child loves. I mention 
this because teachers are very often timid and shy about play- 
ing themselves. Remember Froebel's guide: "The child is 
the test of the dignity and fitness of the game." Eliminate 
all that you do not think proper for yourself to participate in. 

571. Dishonesty; cheating and stealing. — If the spirit a?id prac- 
tice of dishonesty (cheatiiig and stealing) had become rife in 
your school, describe how the principal or assistant to the prin- 
cipal might deal effectively with it. 

Dr. Maxwell in rating a teacher marks a teacher C or D 
when such a condition exists in her classroom, considering it 
lack of control. He further states that the aim in marking 



412 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

teachers is to raise the "teaching- force toahig-her plane." It, 
therefore, becomes the duty of a supervisor to assist the teach- 
er in controlling- her class ; i. e., to find the cause for the lack 
of control and to help to remove it. 

Dr. Hervey says "Personality" is at the root of this con- 
trol, that the teacher's ideals and attitude tovi'ard life will 
surely be reflected in a class. Accuracy on the part of teach- 
ers is a primary requisite. Such statements, as "I am the 
sister of a policeman ; if you don't mind me, I'll have you all 
arrested;" or "A five dollar g-old piece to the first boy who 
works this problem !" (not g"iven, of course) should not be tol- 
erated. Were they rife in a school, they might well become 
the theme of a g-eneral conference. It would be necessary to 
raise the moral tone of the teachers and their ideals. Confer- 
ences, general and private, helping- the weaker teachers to 
associate with the strong-er in social ways; having- teachers 
visit; reading-, both general and professional literature; sug-- 
g-esting- travel ; if the time permits making somewhat of a com- 
panion of those teachers needing- it most; all these might be 
helpful in raising- the ideals of teachers. But as with a class, 
so with a school, the thing- of utmost importance, seems to me, 
is the ideals of the supervisor herself. They permeate a school 
and almost unconsciously make or mar it with silent resist- 
less force. 

As far as the children are concerned, it has been said, 
"Trust a boy and he will come up to your expectations every 
time." Moreover, children are not developed morally, any 
more than physically, or mentally. This should be clearly 
shown to teachers. Hence the removal of temptation becomes 
absolutely necessary. "Yielding- to it is sin." Hence chil- 
dren should never be tempted. Valuables should be carefully 
locked up. In marking- papers no child should be tempted. 
Accuracy should be insisted upon, but throug-hout to be posi- 
tive is better than to be neg-ative, and wrong- impulses are 
best controlled throug-h the great principle of inhibition. The 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 413 

teacher should feel no contempt for young- souls, much less 
show it. If she give them plenty of healthy, happy work, 
hard work very often, she will lead them back to self respect, 
the foundation upon which may be securely laid the "corner 
stone" of character, — principle, the will to do the right what- 
ever the consequences. After which it becomes an easy mat- 
ter to show that lying-, cheating- and stealing- are mere forms 
of selfishness. It can best be done by cultivating- a proper 
class spirit which makes the child say proudly "our class," 
"our school" and makes him feel the deep responsibility of 
the words uttered two thousand years ago, "Man liveth not 
unto himself" and "Bear ye one another's burdens." When 
this condition has been reached the spirit of altruism will 
have successfully eradicated that of intrinsic selfishness evi- 
denced by the fact that lying, cheating- and stealing were rife 
in the school. 

572. Control of feelings and desires. — That phase of education 
which has f 07^ its aim the teaching how to cont?'ol the feelings 
and desires is most important. Explain the meaning of ''con- 
trol in this sense. How may this be accomplished in an 
elementary school? 

Training in this sense refers to moral training. It is the 
training of the will to act habitually in free obedience to the 
sense of du(:y. (Choosing always to respond to the highest 
motive, controlling baser. ) Every act of the soul leaves a 
tendency to act again in like manner and increased power to 
act. Power and tendency are the abiding results of all activ- 
ity and this is the fundamental fact in all training for control. 
Character is the result of moral activity and the source of con- 
duct; hence, it is trained by appropriate activity of the moral 
powers. 

If we believe that all education is habit-forming let us help to 
form the habit of "right doing" in the little child so that when 
he is older he will love the right and hate evil, inhibit the de- 
sire for vice (carelessness, lying, stealing, laziness, tardiness, 



414 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

truancy, impudence and rebellion) by supplanting- in the tiny 
child the virtues (accuracy, justice, punctuality, co-operation 
and obedience.) 

In habit-forming- we must remember that for every act of the 
mind there is a corresponding- nervous readjustment; hence, 
make our nervous system the ally and not the enemy. 

The words uttered two thousand years ago, "The spirit 
indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak," and "Who can de- 
liver me from the body of this Death ?" show us that the power 
of habit to control our spirit (will) was felt as keenly then as 
it is to-day. 

Moral freedom (free obedience) is the supreme aim; it is free- 
dom! It is intellectually and morally independent ! Hence, the 
aim of the teacher must be "emancipation of pupil from super- 
vision." Give him independent tasks to perform. Moral free- 
dom is attained through self-control. So far as is advisable 
leave the pupil to his honor and sense of right. Eliminate re- 
pressive measures appealing to the better instincts and the 
awakenings of his conscience. Dr. Hervey says, "No person 
has a fully developed moral character until there has been a 
transfer of the seat of authority from without to within himself; 
a moral man obeys himself." To trust a pupil tends to make 
him worthy of that trust. Therefore a wisely applied system 
of self-government may be found effective. The essential point 
is that the teacher should make pupils sharers in problems 
arising out of their community life; and that each should be 
trusted to perform a certain function. Then self-control will 
mean not so much self-repression as healthy and effective co- 
operation. Self-assertion will end in self-renunciation. 

573. Point of fatigue, plenum vacuum, moral imbecile, artificial 

incentives.— iix//rt/;z each. 

( a) The plenum vacuum is the system of ventilating and 
heating used in our public schools. Air is taken in at the 
level of the first or second story. It is carried through ducts 
to the cellar. It first strikes a system of pipes (tempering 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 415 

coils) used only when the outside temperature is below forty- 
degrees. These coils bring- all air to a temperature of 40 de- 
grees. Then all the air is forced through two coils which 
raise it to 68 or 70 degrees. Thermostats automatically force 
the air to this temperature. It goes through a blower to the 
classrooms. Then it enters near the ceiling. Deflectors force 
it down into all parts of the room. Impure air is thereby 
forced out near the floor. (Each pupil is allowed 30 cu. ft. of 
pure air per minute. ) The impure air finds its way out through 
ducts leading to the roof. 

(b) Point of fatigue is that period at which nature warns us 
that we have passed beyond the point of normal weariness to 
abnormal exhaustion. 

Restlessness, lack of co-ordination, omissions in speech, un- 
certainty of movements, decreased sensibility (sight and hear- 
ing) flushed face — loss of memory and finally insomnia are 
signs of abnormal fatigue. 

We, as teachers, should remember that the amount of study 
or exercise which produces normal fatigue in a strong child 
of ten produces abnormal in a weak child. The point of 
fatigue is especially low in children whose parents are alco- 
holic or neurotic in their habits ; anaemic children, children 
defective in sight and hearing; rapidly growing children, and 
those entering the period of adolescence, mouth breathers, and 
those who have adenoid growths. Cautions. 

1. Avoid overpressure and too long recitations. 

2. Have suitable periods of work and rest under 

the psychological law of change. 

3. Shorten number of hours of work in primary 

grades, especially for children who are easily 
fatigued. 

4. Grant recess period for open air exercise. 

5. Alternate difficult and easy studies — placing 

difficult studies in morning when wave of vi- 
tality is highest. • 



416 METHODS IN KDUCATION 

6. Study rationally the psycholog-y of the child, so 
that manag-ement of school may satisfy the 
needs of individual pupils. 

(c) Moral Imbecile. A moral act is a feeling- of oblig-ation 
to some hig-her power, carried out by the will. It is the in- 
nate impulse of the soul of all rational being-s. A moral im- 
becile is one in whom this moral sense (of duty) is so low as 
to be scarcely if at all perceptible. 

In treating- a moral imbecile, look to the cause. If it is 
physical remove the cause as far as possible. If it is due to 
some defect of intellect, hereditary or otherwise, the only 
course to pursue is to place him in the hands of some compe- 
tent person whose love for human life is so great that she will 
neither show nor even feel contempt, but be patient, loving, 
trusting, cheerful, hopeful for the best; show no intolerance 
nor impatience, but "be tender with the sanctities of youthful 
feelings." 

In dealing with such defectives, be careful of the diet, the 
hours of sleep and recreations, observe the rules of cleanli- 
ness for this is next to Godliness, is even a part of Godliness. 

Manual training and physical culture are of great benefit 
in training for control. 

(d) Artificial Incentive. Desires that incite or impel a man 
to efi'ort are called motives or incentives. A natural incentive 
is one in which the desired object is the immediate result of 
the effort as, knowledge is the immediate result of study. But, 
when the desired object has no such consequential relation to 
the effort put forth, it is said to be artificial ; as, "stars" a 
reward of study. 

574. Adjustment of seats and desks. — Describe the proper ad- 
justment of seats and desks. 

Pupils are of necessity a great sedentary class ; hence 
arises the question of proper adjustment of seats and desks. 
I. Adjustment as to pupil's physical comfort. 

a. Light from back and left, (light) 

b. Not tooiiear an open window, (ventilation) 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 417 

c. Not too near radiator, (heat) 

d. Adjustable seats are best. 

Seat too hig-h causes raising- of shoulders. 

Seat too low causes round or stooping- shoulders 

and curvature of lower limbs. 
Use adjustable seats and adjust to needs of each 

pupil. 

e. Larg-er pupils in rear seats. 

f. Children defective in sig-ht and hearing- should be 

seated near the teacher and blackboard, 
g-. Remember that it is the continuing- in the incor- 
rect position which causes such troubles as 
nervous disorders, round shoulders, sunken 
chests, curvature of spine, impairment of in- 
ternal org-ans especially the pelvic org-ans. 
Caution. Give a g-reat deal of physical exercise to 
overcome such tendencies. 
II. Seat pupils with reference to each other. 

1. For discipline. 

2. For class exercises. 



28 



Chapter XIX. Answers in Methods for 
License No. 1. 

575. Primary reading exercises on Hiawatha. 

1. Then lag-oo, the great boaster, 

2. He the marvelous story-teller, 

3. He the traveler and the talker, 

4. He the friend of old Nokomis, 

5. Made a bov^ for Hiawatha; 

6. From a branch of ash he made it, 

7. From an oak-boug-h made the arrows, 

8. Tipped with flint, and winged with feathers, 

9. And the cord he made of deer-skin. 

faj Compose a blackboard exercise in reading of about eight 
liftes, based upoit lines ^ to g inclusive, of the above passage, 
the exercise to be suited to a iB or a 2 A grade, fioj 

(b) What principles shotild be followed in composing read- 
ing passages for children in the grades na^ned? fioj 

(a) lagoo made a bow. 

He made it for Hiawatha. 

It was made from a branch of ash. 

He made the arrows from an'oak-bough. 

He tipped the arrows with flint. 

They were also winged with feathers. 

lagoo made a cord for the bow. 

He made the cord of deer-skin. 

(b) Base the lesson on a suitable and interesting 

story. 

Make the sentences progressive, so that the unity 
of the story is preserved. 

Do not introduce too many new words into one 
sentence. 

Repeat difficult and new words in new combina- 
tions. 

Make the sentences short. 



ELEMENTARY METHODS 419 

576. Lessons on phonograms. — ^Outline a lesson : (a) on the 
phonogram ail ; (b) on the phonogram th (as in thin). Men- 
tion devices to be employed. (12) 

(a) To teach the phonogram ail. 

Teacher uses phonogram cards to review quickly f, p, b, s, 
r, t, m, n. 

Teacher presents card with phonog-ram ail ; teacher pro- 
nounces ail, children pronounce. Teacher writes ail on the 
blackboard, children pronounce. Teacher points to it in var- 
ious places on the blackboard, children pronounce. 

Teacher sounds such words as the following-, children pro- 
nouncing- each : p-^//, s,-ail, n-ail, f-ail. 

Teacher writes on board, pail ; she covers ail, children 
sound p ; she covers p, children g-ive ail. Teacher shows 
whole word, children sound rapidly as she points and then 
pronounce pail. 

Similarly, children sound and pronounce sail, rail, fail, etc., 
from the blackboard. 

(b) To teach correct sound of fk (as in t/iiji). 

This phonog-ram usually needs considerable drill with Eng-- 
lish-speaking- children as well as with foreig-ners. Have 
frequent drills on lists of words containing- this sound; as 
thin, thing-, thanks, think, threw. 

Let the child who has trouble with the sound come close to 
the teacher, and watch her as she pronounces the word. 

I have found the use of a mirror helpful. After the child 
has watched the teacher make the sound, let him look in the 
mirror and watch his own mouth as he imitates her. 

Tell the child to place his tong-ue between his teeth, and 
then give the sound. With the tong-ue in this position, he can- 
not say fi^tk for think, nor dijig for thijtg. 

577. Agreement of pronoun and dLXiiQCQAeni.— Describe briefly, 
with the aid of illustrative sejitences, a good method of con- 
ducting a lesson on the poi^it that a pronoun need not be of the 
same case as its antecedent. ( j^) 



420 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

This point presents difficulty chiefly with the relative pro- 
noun ; therefore most attention should be g-iven to it in that 
connection, but other pronouns may be presented. 

Have written on the blackboard such sentences as the fol- 
lowing- : 

(a) John has lost his book. 

(b) These are the men whom you saw. 

(c) Mary saw the bird whose song- we heard. 

(d) I know the boy who was here. 

(e) This is the flower that the g-irl found. 

(f) The story which was told by the teacher was 

about the Indians. 

Teacher should question as follows : 

Name the pronoun in (a). How is it used? What, then, is 
its case? Name its antecedent. What is the case oijohn? 

Name the relative pronoun in (b). How is it used? What, 
then, is its case? Give its antecedent. What is the case of 
men f 

Question in a similar manner on the pronouns that have ex- 
pressed antecedents in the other sentences. Frame questions 
in such a way as to emphasize the fact that the case depends 
on the use of the pronoun, not at all on the antecedent. 

To fix further the point of the lesson, the teacher may g-oover 
the sentences a second time, this time asking the question dif- 
ferently; for example, "Give the case of his, with the reason 
for case: g-ive case of whom, with reason." 

When a pronoun is used as the subject of a verb, what is its 
case? When a pronoun is used as a possessive modifier, what 
is its case? What is its case when it is used as the object of a 
verb ? object of a preposition ? 

Make a sentence containing- a relative pronoun (a) in the 
objective case; (b) in the possessive case; (c) in the nominative 
case. 

Write a sentence containing- a relative pronoun in the nom- 
inative case, whose antecedent shall be in the objective case. 



ELEMENTARY METHODS 421 

Write one containing a pronoun in the possessive case, whose 
antecedent is in the nominative case; etc. 

578. Processes before reasons in arithmetic. — "There are some 
processes in arithmetic which should be taught without any 
attempt at explanation; when the pupil is more mature, he will 
discover the reason of these processes." 

E.xplain this statement and illitst7^ate its application with 
reference to a specific topic in arithmetic. fi^J 

Certain processes in arithmetic may be learned and used 
with facility by children long before they are able to under- 
stand the reasons for the process. Verbal memory develops 
earlier than the logical powers, and children may make use of 
it before they are capable of following out a line of complicated 
reasoning, such as would be called for in giving the reasons 
for the various steps in many processes. 

For example, the process of long division should be taught 
mechanically. Nd attempt at explanation should be made at 
first, but the steps should be so thoroughly learned through 
drill that the use of this process thereafter will be automatic. 
It would only confuse the child, without helping him, to in- 
troduce any reason for these steps at this stage in the work. 
All his attention must be concentrated on learning the process 
until that is mastered; its usefulness will not be in any way 
impaired by the fact that the explanation of the process is de- 
ferred until he is more mature. 

579. Devices for rapid drill in addition. — Describe three de- 
vices, or modes of proceditre, for enabliiig the teacher to con- 
duct effectively a drill in rapid additioji, and state the advan- 
tages of each. 

(a) Write columns of figures on the board to be added. Let 
children add as the teacher points, or independently. Every 
addition should be verified by adding the column again in the 
opposite direction. Have a time limit, and increase the inter- 
est by having the pupils in each row try to excel the pupils in 



422 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

the other rows by getting- a greater proportion of correct an- 
swers within the time limit. 
Advantages : 

Calls for activity of every pupil. 

Holds their interest and concentrated attention, 

thereby securing effective work. 
Can be easily adapted to any grade. 
Stimulates wholesome rivalry and the social spirit. 
Is of a practical nature. 

(b) In lower grades, use cards, each card to contain one of 
the combinations learned. Have every combination repre- 
sented on at least one card, but use most frequently the hard- 
est ones. Show the cards rapidly, the children giving results 
as called on. Notice what combinations are missed, and who 
misses them, and go back to them later. 

Advantages : 

1. Calls for activity of every pupil. 

2. Holds their interest and attention. 

3. Is thorough, since every combination is pre- 

sented. 

4. Helps the teacher to discover what combinations 

need most drill. 

5. Helps the teacher to discover what pupils are 

weak in the work. 

(c) Draw a circle on the board, and about its circumference 
write the numbers to be used in the drill. Place another num- 
ber at the center. Teacher points to the numbers to be added, 
the children making the combinations mentally only, until 
teacher calls for final result. In lower grades, point to only 
two or three figures successively ; in higher grades, the chil- 
dren may be required to make many additions before final re- 
sult is announced. 

Advantages : 

1. The children always enjoy this drill. 

2. Calls for concentration and quick thinking. 

3. May be easily adapted to needs of class. 



ELEMENTARY METHODS 423 

580. Causal series in geography. — (a) What is meant by ''the 
method of causal series'' in geography? Illustrate its appli- 
cation to the study of India. (b) Describe briefly another 
method of dealing with such a topic in geography. 

(a) In studying- g-eography by the method of causal series, 
the topics are taken up in such an order as to bring out and 
emphasize cause and effect. For example, the study of climate 
would follow the study of position and relief, as depending on 
them ; products would naturally follow position and climate ; 
industries would be taught as depending on products, posi- 
tion and relief ; and so on. 

In studying India, the following outline illustrates the ap- 
plication of this method : 

1. Position. 

(1 ) Absolute. 

(2) Relative. (Notice neighboring bodies of land 
and water). 

2. Relief and drainag-e. 

3. Climate and rainfall. 

(1) As influenced by latitude. 

(2) '' " " surrounding water. 

(3) " " " monsoon winds. 

(4) " " " mountains and plateaus. 

4. Products; dependent on natural resources and 

climate. 

5. Industries; dependent on what causes? 

6. People. The climate largely accounts for the 

character of the people. 

7. Cities. The cities are located where there are 

harbors and where routes of trade naturally 
fall. Account for the location and importance 
of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Delhi, Benares. 

(b) Another method. 

Teach effects first. For example : by descriptions, pictures, 
maps, etc., the children see India as it is; its people, their 
centers of population, their customs, religion and industries. 



424 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

and their position in the world. Then lead them from this 
study to seek for the causes of this present condition. 

Whatever method is used, the relation of cause and effect 
should always be traced. 

581. Type-study in history. — What are the advantages, and 
what are the limitations, of the method of type-study in history? 
Illustrate by refere7ice to a topic i7i American colonial history. 

Advantages: (a) It would be impossible for us to take time 
to study in detail each separate character of history with which 
we need to be acquainted; or to study carefully each event of 
history in all its circumstances. By making- a detailed study 
of a character or event which is typical, and then associating- 
with it the other characters or events which resemble it, the 
needed information is g-ained with a great saving of time and 
effort. 

(b) "The type," says McMurry, "is a combination of the 
particular and the general, containing both the graphic ele- 
ments of the concrete as well as the striking features of the 
general notion." From study of the type, the general notion 
is reached easily and quickly. One well-taught, well-chosen 
type is worth a great deal as a basis of comparison and a 
center for related knowledge. Ideas gained by the type method 
in history are clearer, better defined, and more ready for use 
in practical thinking than those gained otherwise. 

(c) By this method, a lesson unity is preserved. The gen- 
eral notion is reached inductively, and is ready for application, 
in estimating other characters or events. In all later history 
work, the general notion reached through the type is ready for 
instant application. 

Limitations: (a) A broad knowledge of history and excel- 
lent judgment are needed to enable a teacher to select proper 
topics as types. It is very important that the types be well- 
chosen. 

(b) Some topics of history must from their peculiar nature 
be studied in detail separately, and do not admit of a close 



ELEMENTARY METHODS 425 

following- of the method of type study, especially before one 
has an outlook on world-history. 

(c) It is necessary, after the general notion is reached, to 
point out differences and distinctions, in order that the idea 
of the individuals shall be true. 

Illustration: In the study of colonial history, the colonial 
patriot of the period immediately preceding- the Revolution 
may best be taught by a careful study of such a man as Sam- 
uel Adams. In this man we have, perhaps, the best illustra- 
tion of the New England character as it existed in the patriots 
of that critical time. Much enthusiasm may be aroused by 
the skillful teacher in this character study, which may be 
easily carried over in a later lesson to such men as Warren, 
James Otis, Patrick Henry and Hancock. When the children 
begin to appreciate the character of Samuel Adams, they will 
understand how he felt and thought, and why he took the 
stand he did ; and can very readily interpret the lives of the 
other patriots of that time. 

The teacher must make a careful study of all these charac- 
ters to enable her to decide which to select for the type, and 
what to emphasize. 

It is not sufficient to have reached the general notion ; not 
only must resemblances be noticed but the children should 
make distinctions and additions; e. g. , Adams was a typical 
New England patriot, Patrick Henry a Virginian; Warren's 
services, though distinguished, were ended by his death at 
Bunker Hill; the close of Otis's life was peculiar and tragic. 

582. Nature study lesson on the spider. — Emimerate the points 
which shottld be treated in a 7tatnre-stndy lesson on the spider. 
(4 A Grade). 

Points to be treated in a lesson on the spider for 4 A grade : 

1. Appearance: color, size, head, body, legs, eyes. 

2. What it can do, and how it lives ; the web ; its 

food, the egg-cases. 

3. Comparison of spider with insects previously 

studied. 



Chapter XX. Answers in History and Principles 
of Education for License No. 1. 

583. Aims in distributing questions among pupils.— faj What 
az?ns shotcld a teacher keep in view in distributing questions 
among the pupils ? (8) (b) Give two practical suggestio7is 
for securing proper distributio7i of questions in a class recita- 
tion iti geography. (6) 

(a) To give each child an opportunity to recite. 

To hold active attention of each child by propounding ques- 
tion to entire class, then calling on an individual to answ^er ; 
also to hold attention by calling on a child w^hen his attention 
begins to w^ander. 

To test and help pupils by allow^ing them to recite on points 
in which previous recitations have showed them weak. 

To increase the interest and confidence of dull, timid and 
backward pupils by calling on them for answers they can 
easily give, thus making them feel they have a part and re- 
sponsibility in every recitation. 

(b) Have in mind a regular order for calling on pupils, e. g. , 
it might be from left to right in alternate rows. Keep this 
scheme in mind and call on the pupils in that order, deviating 
from it every now and then so that pupils shall not detect the 
order, and also when it is desirable to call on a particular 
pupil who individually needs it at that time. Unless a teacher 
has in mind such a regular order for calling on pupils, she is 
very likely to be unfair in distributing questions. 

At the close of the recitation in geography, a few seconds 
will sufiice for the teacher to check in her class book such 
pupils as have shown in the present recitation that they will 
need special attention in the next recitation in that subject. 
In some cases a note may be made of the question or topic to 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 427 

be g-iven such pupil. In preparing- the next lesson in geog-- 
raphy, the teacher may refresh her memory by reference to 
her class book, plan her review of the previous lesson accord- 
ingly, and distribute her questions w^ith reference to these 
needs of individuals. 

584. Causes of lack of interest in reading lesson.— StaU causes, 
of three dz'sfmct kinds, for a 'weakeni7ig or failing interest of 
trie pupils in a reading lesso7i (6), and give practical sugges- 
tions for reviving stick interest. (6) 

(a) Lack of interest and appreciation on the part of the 
teacher. 

(b) Fatig-ue, caused by too long a recitation, monotony, etc. 

(c) Lack of suitability of the selection read. 

(a) The teacher should study the piece of literature until 
she does appreciate and love it. If the lesson is in the lov^er 
grades, vvrhere the w^ork is more mechanical, there should be 
deep interest on the part of the teacher in that v^^ork. She 
must cultivate an interest and then use w^ill-power to exhibit 
that interest even w^hen she is tired. 

(b) Shorten the recitation period. Introduce variety into 
the method of conducting it. Precede the recitation by brief 
physical exercises. 

(c) Select matter suitable to the grade in technical diffi- 
culty and in thought. It must be neither too difficult nor too 
easy. A boy loses his self-respect and his interest in reading 
if he is required to read matter that seems childish to him. 
Select matter related to the interests of the child. 

585. Principles justifying certain processes in teaching. — What 
principles of teaching may be cited to justify ; {a) freguent use 
of the blackboard in elementary sciejice work; if) readijig by 
sight method before begi7ining study of phonics ; {c) correlat- 
ing geography with history ; {d) teaching defi7iitions {i7i gra77i- 
77iar) after i7ispectio7i of illustrative se7ite7ices. {12) 

(a) The mind must gain through the senses its knowledge 
of everything external to itself. 



428 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Graphic methods streng-then impressions and make knowl- 
edge clearer. 

Such a method stimulates interest and attention, and knowl- 
edge cannot be gained without interest and attention on the 
part of the learner. 

(b) Proceed fr(.»m the known to the related unknown. 
Proceed from the whole to its parts. 

Begin at the child's standpoint. 

(c) Logical associations aid memory. 
Correlation aids apperception. 

Geography makes history, and must be correlated with it in 
order to understand history. 

(d) Proceed from the concrete to the abstract. 
Proceed from the particular to the general. 
Never tell a child what he can find out for himself. 
Definitions and principles should be taught inductively. 

586. Three principles underlying habit. — State three principles 
underlying the ready formation of habits, and show how to ap- 
ply these principles in aiding a pupil to eradicate a bad habit. 
Illustrate, {if) 

Principles : 

(1) There must be a strong underlying motive. 

(2) Frequent, regular repetition is necessary for 

the ready formation of a habit. 

(3) Youth is the time of greatest plnsticity and the 

forming of habits is easiest then. 
Suppose a pupil has a bad habit of incorrect posture in 
standing and sitting. The teacher should first of all supply 
a strong motive for the pupil's exertion of will-power. She 
must make sure that he understands wherein his posture is 
wrong, and how to set about correcting it. Tell him what the 
bad results will be if he maintains this position. This must 
be done very tactfully as a child is sensitive on such points. 
If the teacher has a real, sympathetic interest in tlie matter, 
the pupil will feel it and there will be no misunderstanding. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 429 

Make the motive strong-er by setting- him a g-ood example in 
your own correct posture and by placing him in proximity to 
pupils who hold themselves correctly. Above all else, com- 
mend him for improvement. No real prog^ress can be made 
without the child's own effort of will, and to secure this there 
must be a motive given him. 

Pay particular attention to the posture of this pupil in phy- 
sical exercises, as well as all throug-h the day. Without mak- 
ing- him conspicious by open reproof, the teacher should re- 
mind him of the habit he is trying- to break up, many times 
during the day, by a look, a touch, or a word, and so secure 
frequent and regular effort. 

Let the child understand that if he desires to stand and sit 
correctly, now is the time to form the habit. If it is difficult 
now, it will be more so as he grows older. 

587. Synonyms. — Discrimiiiate, and illusirafe : (a) mstinct 
and reason ; {b) a type, and a class concept. {12) 

(a) Instinct has been defined as a race-habit. It is a ten- 
dency to act in a certain way without a definite idea of the 
end to be reached. James calls instincts "native impulses". 
The instinct of physical activity is exhibited by an infant 
when he tlirows his arms and legs about, and by an older 
child in his love for games that afford physical activity. 

Reason is the power of the mind that enables us to reach 
conclusions by comparison of judgments. Instincts are strong 
in childhood, but reason is at its best when we are more 
mature. Instincts are "native;" reason is based on observa- 
tion and experience. A child who sees a whale may reason 
that it is a fish ; his reasoning is faulty on account of lack of 
observation. Instinct might lead a child in school to shout, 
and run noisily around the room ; but reason based on obser- 
vation and experience, teaches him it will be better not to do so. 

(b) A type is a key to related areas of knowledge. It is one 
topic selected for careful study because it represents or illus- 
trates so many of the ideas to be taught about a number of 
topics as to be typical of the class. A type is concrete. 



430 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

Minneapolis is a g-ood type of a flour and lumber center; the 
Colorado river is a good type of the canon-forming- rivers. 

A class concept is an idea or general notion corresponding- 
to the name of a class of things. It is abstract. It contains 
only those qualities common to all the individuals of the class. 

The general notion city is a class concept. It contains only 
the qualities common to all cities, such as being- a center of 
population, v^rith a kind of local government, etc. The indi- 
vidual characteristics of the exact size, special industries, 
particular location, etc., do not enter into it. 

588. Plato, Comenius, Jacotot, Spencer, Rousseau, Milton.— 

\Aits%ver only two of the folloiving five points.^ State the 
views {a) of Plato on music i7t an educational scheme ; {[?) of 
Co7nenius or facotot, on the proper inethod of teaching a lan- 
giidge ; {c) of Spencer, on the place in education of the study 
of literature and art ; {d) of Rousseau, as to discipline; (<?) of 
Milton, as to the proper scope of education. {i6) 

(b) Jacotot vs^as a French educator of the early part of the 
19th century. His method of teaching a language was largely 
based on his maxim "All is in all." He used Fenelon's Tele- 
machus as the text-book. This v^as memorized by his pupils, 
and so thoroughly mastered that all the pupils needed to know 
of grammar, rhetoric, etc., was based on this one piece of 
literature. In fact, he believed that all knowledge of phil- 
osophy, history and mathematics could be taug-ht by using- the 
Telemachus as a center, thus emphasizing the principle of cor- 
relation. Repetition was another principle of his method. His 
maxim or paradox "One can teach a language not known to 
him" was based on his own success in teaching Dutch chil- 
dren the French language, they being entirely unacquainted 
with that language and he having no knowledge of the Dutch, 
by using the Telemachus as above described. 

(d) Rousseau, a French educator of the 18th century, be- 
lieved in the discipline of natural consequences. That is, he 
believed that the best way to discipline a child and teach him 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 431 

the difference between rig-ht and wrong, was to let him suffer 
the natural consequences of his wrong-doing- as punishment. 
For example, when Emile broke a window, he was compelled 
to stay in the room and suffer from cold; when he did not per- 
form his tasks, he was obliged to forego the food that would 
have been secured through the performance of his tasks. These 
punishments were to appear to Emile as the natural and un- 
avoidable result of his own wrong act. 

589. Scholasticism. — Whai is the meaning and the signifi- 
cance of this tej-m i7i edncational history ? 

Scholasticism is the name given to an educational movement 
which sought to reconcile pagan philosophy and the Christian 
religion. It extended from the 9th to the 15th centuries, reach- 
ing its climax from the 11th to the 13th centuries. The school- 
men or scholastics were monks, and so scholasticism is a 
development or a result from the whole institution called mon- 
asticism. The method of teaching employed in scholasticism 
was first the lecture method supplemented by explanation, 
and later the deductive logic of Aristotle. The form of this 
deductive logic was the syllogism. For illustration of the 
syllogism see 536. The most prominent of the school men 
were Abelard at Paris, Duns Scotus, and Thomas Aquinas. 

590. Jesuits, Froebel, Spencer. — Give one proposal or practice 
concerning the subjects of study, and one concerning methods 
of teaching advanced by the Jesuits ; by Froebel ; by Spencer. 

The Jesuits selected subjects that would develop the receptive 
and reproductive powers. Interest was secured by means of 
emulation. Methods were used to attract the higher classes. 

Froebel selected subjects familiar at first and interesting to 
the child — those associated with the child's life. Froebel 
sought through the natural activities of the child to develop 
and train the child's faculties. 

Spencer was a realist and believed that through the study 
of "Science" all good was to be accomplished. The method 
was that of observation and experiment. 



432 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

591. Double translation. — Explain and ilhistrate. 

Double translation is the process of translating- a foreign 
lang-uag-e into one's native language, and then after a lapse of 
time translating back again into the foreign language. Thus 
Sturm used the method in teaching Latin and Greek in the 
16th century and Ascham is said to have used a similar method 
in teaching Latin to Queen Elizabeth. 

592. Power of observation. — Explain what is meant by the 
''power of obser7'atio?i.'' How fa?' does the developfnent of this 

power in one direction involve its development in other direc- 
tions? 

To observe is to look at a thing closely, to take note of its 
several parts. Power of observation means ability to look at 
a thing closely and to take note of its several parts w^hile thus 
looking closely. A trained observer looks at tv^^o pine trees 
closely. If he has had training in observing pine trees he im- 
mediately can tell by reason of shape, grace, color, bark and 
other special characteristics what variety he observes or if the 
variety is unknown to him that it differs from known varieties. 

A training in observation along certain lines tends to make 
observation along new lines easier. Observation is really 
habit of noticing characteristics of objects. If habit is formed 
in observation of certain things, while characteristics may 
differ, the habit remains when totally new objects are presented 
for consideration. Observation in new lines will not be so 
easy as the mind is not prepared to know just what to look 
for, but the power to look carefully has become a habit and 
will be of great service. 

593. Music in Greek education. — What did music include i7t 
Greek education ? 

Music was a comprehensive word relating to both matter 
and method. It included poetry, the drama, history, oratory, 
the sciences, music in the limited sense and all other activi- 
ties presided over by the nine Muses. After memorizing 
Homeric poems the boy chanted them to the accompaniment of 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 433 

the lyre. Hence music included the processes of developing 
creative pow^er, — pov^er of expression, of initiative and of ap- 
preciation. — From p. 34, Epitome. 

Music included all educative efforts presided over by the 
nine muses, as follows : Clio, the muse of history; Euterpe, 
of lyric poetry ; Thalia, of comedy; Melpomene, of tragedy; 
Terpsichore, of choral dance ; Erato, of amatory poetry ; 
Polyhymnia, of rhetoric and eloquence ; Urania, of astron- 
omy ; Calliope, of epic poetry. — From p. 58, Epitome. 

594. Herbart's doctrine of interest. — What is this doctrine ? 
To be interested in a thing- is to be in love with it. This 

kind of feeling develops into desire, and desire into will. 
Instead of considering learning as an aim and interest a 
means, Herbart would make learning develop an interest that 
would last till the end of life. This kind of interest is called 
*'direct interest" in opposition to "indirect interest" w^hich 
pursues an object, not for its own sake but for some intellect- 
ual or material advantage. "The more the indirect interest 
predominates," says Herbart, "the more it leads to one-sided- 
ness if not egotism. " The one-sided individual approaches 
egotism even if he himself does not notice it; for he relates 
everything to the na,rrow circle for which he lives and thinks. 
Herbart would develop many-sided interest, which means 
balanced development of all the powers of man. 

595. According to nature. — Explaiiz meaning. 

The expression according to nature has had two distinct 
meanings in the history of education. The first meaning re- 
lated to the physical nature of the outside world ; the second 
meaning related to the nature of the child. During the latter 
part of the 16th century the movement called realism began to 
direct the attention of educators to natural objects instead of 
to mere words. The first concrete result of this attitude of the 
mind is found in the books and the course of study made by 
Comenius in the 17th century. Rousseau directed attention to 
the nature of the child as well as to external nature and 

29 



434 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

showed the necessity of making- courses of study that would 
satisfy both views of the meaning- of nature. A more extend- 
ed view of the meaning- of this phrase as found in Rousseau 
may be found on pag-e 180 of McEvoy's Epitome. 

596. Realism and naturalism. — Explain ineani7ig and show 
relation to method of teaching. 

As has been said in section 595, the latter part of the 16th 
century witnessed an educational movement in favor of the 
study of real thing-s. For many years the study of Latin and 
Greek was the chief means of education. Rabelais and others 
objected to the study of Latin and Greek because they said 
that such study was a mere memory process based upon 
words. They directed attention to the study of natural ob" 
jects and thus made the beg-inning- of a movement known as 
realism in education. The movement continued during- the 
succeeding- years and it has broadened to include all forms of 
nature, human and otherwise. The name naturalism became 
associated with the movement in the 18th century. Natural- 
ism implies subject-matter and methods of teaching- in accord- 
ance with the requirements of human nature and external 
physical nature. 

597. Indirect instruction. — Define and show its importaitce as 
a method of instj^nction. 

Indirect instruction has reference to all that instruction re- 
ceived by the pupil while the teacher has some specific aim 
which she emphasizes as the point of the lesson. While teach- 
ing- a lesson in nature study, for instance, the specific aim may 
be to show how roots absorb food and moisture from the earth. 
The direct instruction pertains to this aim. It is clear that 
the pupils will acquire much related information during the 
period, i. e., they will get much indirect instruction. It may 
be said that all of the influence of the teacher's personality 
during the period may be classed as indirect education or in- 
struction. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 435 

This idea of indirect instruction was emphasized by Fene- 
lon in France during- the I7th century. It was applied es- 
pecially in the education of g-irls. His first ejfforts in this 
method of teaching- were made during- the period he was teach- 
ing the Duke of Burgundy, grandson of Louis XIV. Fenelon 
wrote three books in a fascinating- style so that his pupil 
mig-ht get instruction in all the virtues while studying litera- 
ture and history. 

598. Seven Liberal Arts. — This name was given to the course 
of study formulated by the monks. At the beginning of the 
fourth century, A. D., the course of study had become gener- 
ally fixed so as to include g-rammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arith- 
metic, geometry, music and astronomy. These subjects under 
new applications later became the Seven Liberal Arts. The 
name trivium and quadrivium was given about the end of the 
fourth century. 

if arithmetic 
grammar | , 

rhetoric Quadrivium ^ ^^^^ 

^^^^ {^ astronomy 

— Pp. 70 and 86, Epitome. 

599. Emile's'Studies. — Oiitliiie Rousseau's schetne of educa- 
tion for Emile. 

1. From 1 to 5 years of age. 

a. Father the natural teacher, mother the natu- 
ral nurse. 

b. Physical training free from customary re- 
straints. 

c. Excessive praise of sports, games, etc. 

d. Little attention to intellect and morals. 

2. From 5 to 12. 

a. Negative education. 

b. Natural punishment. 

c. No intellectual training. 



436 METHODS IN EDUCATION 

d. A natural training- of senses throug-h observ- 
ing- all his environment. 

e. "He measures, weighs, counts, compares, 
draws conclusions, tests inferences, discovers 
the principles." 

3. From 12 to 15. Period for the acquisition of 

knowledge. 

a. Curiosity is the sole motive and the sole guide. 

b. Robinson Crusoe, the text-book of life, ac- 
cording- to nature. 

c. Emile learns a trade to show that he over- 
comes the prejudice against it. Manual train- 
ing considered important. 

4. From 15 to 20. Period for training the heart. 

a. Educated for life and social relationships. 

b. Love for others, the g-reat motive. 

c. Importance of adolescence in education. 

d. Strictly moral and relig-ious education. Name 
of God never heard before. — From p. 186, Epi- 
tome. 

600. Complete living. — Discuss Spencer's definition of ed- 
ucation. 

"Education is a preparation for complete living. The 
knowledge that is of most worth is that which most effectively 
promotes complete living." The activities, which constitute 
human life, may be classified in the order of their import- 
ance: (1) Direct self-preservation; (2) indirect self-preser- 
vation; (3) the rearing of children; (4) social demands and 
citizenship ; (5) miscellaneous activities filling- the leisure 
part of life. 

In considering education as a preparation for rational liv- 
ing we have a broad conception that is g-enerally accepted. 
"Whatever special purposes we may have in view, they cannot 
be attained without the use of reason. The difificulty in the 
discussion is to decide what purposes or ends shall be con- 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 437 

sidered worthy of realization. The term complete living 
should include these ; and Spencer has given a classification 
virhich seems to him to be acceptable. But what is the true 
ideal under each of his headings? Will France, Germany, 
England, and the United States agree upon a true ideal ? Can 
it be truly said that even in this country we have an ideal 
which will satisfy the general needs of all our people? 



INDEX. 



The fig"ures refer to pag-es. For complete reference on any topic, 
look for same topic under each of the chapter heading-s, viz. : Arith- 
metic, Composition, General Method, etc. 



PAGE 

A 

Abstraction .389 

Action, reflex, etc. 389 

According- to nature. 324, 433 

Activity 

mobile children 317 

see self-activity 13, 369 

Adolescence 51 

Adjustment of seats 416 

Agreement 

pronoun and antecedent 419 

Aim 

distributing- questions 426 

nature study .....390 

penmanship 332 

Algebra and percentage 371 

Analogy 383 

Analysis 

percentag-e 370-371 

unitary 402 

Apperception 308 

Arithmetic... .217 

addition .231 

addition and multiplication 217 

additive subtraction ...267 

aim of primary arithmetic. .225 

alg-ebra used 261 

analysis ...220 

association ....;.... 267 

casting- out nines 270 

combinations ...217 

commutation 267 

concept of number 225 

concrete operations, kinds. ...227 

constructive exercises 219 

counting- and measuring- 225 

decimal multiplication .....254 

decimal division 255 



PAGE 

decimal types 255 

decimation 229, 267 

decomposition 267 

definition of number 225 

denominate numbers 256 

difficulties graded 220 

distribution 267 

division .239 

divisors 244 

divisibility, tests of 261 

drill, devices for ...228 

elimination of matter 268 

faulty arrangement 249 

fractions 

common 245 

decimals 251 

type examples 251 

graphic methods .242 

Grube method 241 

Maxwell quoted : 392 

multiples.. 242 

multiplication 237 

Nev^ York view^ ..217 

percentag-e .256 

by equation. 258 

decimal method .....256 

fractional method ...257 

types in ...259 

ratio 263 

rote v^^ork ...220 

short processes ...261 

simple interest .263 

Speer method 241 

spiral method ...241 

subtraction 234 

subtraction and division 219 

suggestions 217 

syllogism _. 260 



440 



INDEX 



PAGE 



traduction 271 

unitary analysis.. 266 

variable unit 266 

Arts, Seven Liberal 435 

Assignment of lessons ,379 

Association of ideas 300 

Attention 

and interest 309 

discussed 305 

questioning-. .; 372 

ten rules 301 

Attribute complement... 77 

B 

Battle of Saratoga.. 377 

Butler quoted 4 

c 

Chambered Nautilus 345 

Civics, chapter on 206 

Chicago as type ...407 

Circle of thought 384 

Clearness in education 316 

Climate 

Arctic 394 

and animal life 394 

Comenius 430 

Comparison of animals 353 

Complete living 436-437 

Composition 102 

abstract 105 

criticised 

criticism 110 

dictation 104 

elaboration 105 

forms of expression 105 

general aims 102 

kinds 103 

Maxwell quoted 103 

method of teaching 347 

model for v^riting 107 

model imitated 108 

model in criticism 109 

model studied 108 

model omitted 109 

motives 102 

oral 103 



outlines ..109 

paraphrase ..105 

principles 103 

problems 106 

questions answ^ered, 112 

reproduction 105 

subjects, selection of 106 

suggestions 110 

structural errors Ill 

written 104 

Concept 317 

Concert recitation 327-328 

Concrete methods 333 

Consciousness 304 

Consecutive questioning 372 

Corporal punishment 381 

Correlation ' 3u8, 333 

Connotation of terms 388 

Control of feelings 413 

Culture epochs .327 

Culture, formal 385 

Curriculum 4 

Butler quoted 4 

concentration 10 

contrast.. 5 

co-ordination 10 

correlation.. 7-8 

former courses 5 

principles 4 

culture epoch theory 6 

D 

Debates, value of 353 

Decimals, multiplication 403 

Deduction ..332 

Desks, adjustment .....416 

Development in reading 345 

Devices in management 51 

Dictation, faulty and good 349 

Difficulty 

English to foreigners 401 

reading ...339 

Discipline of consequences 367 

Discovery vs. telling 337 

Dishonesty 411-413 

Doctrine of interest 

Herbart 433 



441 



PAGE 

Double translation 432 

Drawing- 
correlated 380 

g-roup 381 

Drill 

discussed 354 

in observation... 392 

E 

Economy of expression 341 

Education 

clearness in. 316 

Hinsdale quoted 365 

ideals .366 

Jacotot quoted ...364 

principles of 336 

Walker quoted .364 

Elimination in arithmetic 268 

Emile's studies 435-436 

Emulation 382 

Enrichment of curriculum 6 

Erie Canal, outline..... 357 

Evils 360 

Examination department 300 

Exercises 

Hiau^atha 418 

reading- before book 397 

Extension of terms 

F 

Faculties 

training- by subjects.. 319 

Fatig-ue 51, 383, 414 

Faults 

assig-ning lessons... ...379 

questions 373 

Feeling-s, control of ...413-414 

Formal discipline 385 

Formal steps 70, 73 

Formula in percentage 371 

Fortify, meaning 345 

Fractions 403-404 

Froebel .431 

G 

Games for first year 409-411 



PAGE 

General Method 70 

aim 71 

apperception.. 71 

application 72 

comparison 72 

device, method, general 

method 7o 

Dr. Hervey quoted 73 

generalization 72 

illustration in reading 74 

method-v^hole 80 

order of mind 70 

preparation 7l 

presentation 72 

Thanatopsis 74 

General notion 308, 315, 335 

Geography 154 

aids 176 

analytic method ...163 

causal relations 169 

causal series 169 

climate 184 

comparison 173 

concentric circles... .....168 

constructive imagination 162 

distances 161 

descriptive 166 

ethical purposes 158 

excursions 164 

fundamental lacts 160 

glaciers 189 

Heeter quoted 170 

home geography ..160 

intellectual purposes 157 

international date line 196 

isotherms 193 

latitude and longitude 194 

map, how to study 161, 201 

man and nature 170 

Maxwell quoted 177 

McMurry quoted ...165 

models 162 

moisture 186 

new view .; .154 

New York City view 155 

observational geography 166 

early lessons 160 



442 



INDEX 



PAGE 

outlines 176 

Parker quoted 159 

pictures 176 

plan of study 1907 174 

practical purposes 156 

points of compass 160 

rain 187 

rational geog-raphy 165 

representative geography 165 

shape of earth, proofs 181 

Standard time 196 

synthetic method 163 

text, how to study 203 

trade winds ...199 

volcanoes 197 

winds 199 

zone - 192 

Grammar 116 

adjective clauses, drill on. ...142 
concord of pronoun and an- 
tecedent... 143 

connectives explained 147 

connectives illustrated 150 

development: words, 

phrases, clauses 141 

diagrams 120 

drill, kinds of 120 

facts before conclusion.. 117 

false syntax exercises 151 

habit of thinking 117 

infinitives 

as adjectives 140 

as adverbs 140 

as nouns.. ...140 

uses 139 

without to ,141 

modes 130 

noun clauses developed 144 

noun clauses, drill. 146 

oral analysis 120 

parsing 122 

participles 

and infinitives.. .132 

as adjective 137 

as mere adjective 138 

as noun 138 

as mere noun 139 



distinguished 135 

lesson on 133 

uses 135 

parts of speech, lesson on....l24 
personal and relative pro- 
nouns ..._ ...128 

predicate adjective and ad- 
verb distinguished 126 

types 124 

value 116 

Greek music... 432-433 

Group drawing 381 

Group teaching 376 

Growth of Union 406 

H 

Habit 428-429 

Herbart, interest.. 433 

Hervey quoted 73 

History and Civics.. 206 

aim 208 

arousing interest 214 

biography 214 

cause and effect.. 214 

collateral reading 209 

correlation 210 

current events ...206 

dramatization 215 

excursions 209 

geography used 206 

government by people 207 

growth of Union 406 

historical sense 208 

ideas in 405 

illustrations .209 

institutional study. .215 

local government ...215 

local ordinances 207 

members of society 207 

memorizing 211 

mental results ...216 

note books 213 

open text-book recitation 210 

early work 206 

outlines by pupils 213 

chronology 214 



443 



PAGE 

prints and pictures 209 

process of legislation 215 

prog-ress maps .214 

questions by pupils... 212 

reviews 210 

Saratoga, Battle of .377 

source method 213 

text-book method 208 

topical method 211 

type studies 424 

use of menmonics 212 

use of outlines ....214 

value 208 

verbal repetition 211 

Hiav^^atha 418 

Hinsdale on education ...365 

Home study 322 

Homonyms... .....350 

Hudson River, outline 358 

I 

Ideas in history 405-407 

Ideals in education 366 

Image 317 

Imagination 310 

Imbecile, moral 414-416 

Imitation .389 

Indirect instruction 434-435 

Individual notions 315, 335 

Induction 324, 332 

Incentives, artificial 414-416 

Inhibition 387 

Intellect, stages 314 

Interest 

Herbart's 433 

lack of 427 

many-sided 318 

J 

Jacotot 364 

James, balky will.. .306 

Jesuits.. _ 431 

L 

Learning defined 331 

Lesson 

Arctic life 394 

assignment 379 



PAGE 

Hiawatha 418 

latitude 394 

phonograms 419 

synonyms 429-430 

M 

McCloskey method 277 

Many-sided interest 318 

Marking papers 321 

Maxwell 

composition ...103 

course of study 5 

estimating teachers 27 

geography 177 

grammar 122, 392 

Meaning of words 324, 345, 351, 399 

Memory 

defined 13 

discussed 311 

logical 308 

serviceable 363 

Methods 

conversational , .56, 378 

in mind training. 14 

intercorrection 374 

interrupting answer 375 

lecture 57, 378 

looking at pupil 374 

pupils make problems 374 

question ...57, 378 

question before name 374 

repeating question 375 

rotation questioning 372, 375 

using objects in review 374 

writing as a penalty.. 375 

Methods of teaching. 56 

analytic 68 

classification 56 

concrete to abstract 63 

conversational 56,378 

deductive ....! 67 

definition 56 

development 56 

empirical to rational 64 

heuristic 65 

inductive 67 

inductive-deductive 67 



444 



INDEX 



PAGE 



PAGE 



known to unknown 63 

lecture 57,378 

observation before reason- 
ing- 64 

particular to g-eneral.. 62 

Prussian 66 

questioning 57, 378 

simple to complex 62 

Socratic 57 

synthetic. 68 

text-book.. 69 

topical 68 

Mind wandering ...308 

Misspelling 352 

N 

Naturalism 434 

Nature study 

aims 390 

defects.. 390 

on spider 425 

New York State 
topical outline 359 

Note books 384 

o 

Observation 432 

cultivation 30 

defined 13 

drill 392 

Outline 

Erie Canal 357 

Hudson River 358 

New York State 359 

P 

Particular notion 315, 335 

Pedagogics, meaning^ 4 

Penalty, writing- 393 

Penmanship, aims 332 

Percentage 

algebra 371 

analysis .371 

formula... 371 

Phonograms 419 

Plenum vacuum 414-416 

Point of fatig-ue 414-416 

Power of observation 432 

Primary reading- 



Hiawatha 418 

Principles 

education 336 

habit 332 

teaching 427-428 

Processes before reasoning- 421 

Progressive difficulties illus- 
trated .....264 

Promotion, principles of 408 

Pronunciation of shrimp 340 

Psychology, definitions in 11 

attention 12 

apperception 12 

concept 13 

conception 13 

consciousness. 11 

definitions 11 

faculties 11 

feeling 11 

habit 13 

imagination 13 

interest 12 

judgment 13 

knowing 11 

memory. 13 

mind 11 

observation 13 

reasoning 13 

self-activity 13 

sensation 12 

sense-perception 12 

will 11 

willing 11 

will 

training of 16 

characteristics of weak... 17 
characteristics of stub- 
born 17 

characteristics of strong.. 18 

causes of weak 18 

causes of strong 19 

cultivation of 19-20 

Punishment 

defined 48, 381 

discussed 381 

kinds 48, 381 

natural 324 



INDEX 



445 



PAGE 

Q 

Questioning-....62,372, 373, 374, 375 

R 

Reading 272 

accent and emphasis... 285 

adaptation 299 

analytic method..... .273 

arousing- interest 283 

articulation 285 

biography 297 

breath control 289 

characteristics of books 272 

combination method 275 

complete works 283 

correlation 299 

critical reading ...284 

dramatization :.. 275 

extensive reading .290 

guiding principle today ..^ 280 

habit 299 

home reading 290 

inflection .286 

intensive reading 290 

literature and character 291 

McCloskey method .277 

memory gems 291 

memorizing a selection.. 297 

mental difficulties 282 

modulation 287 

patriotic selections 296 

pauses 289 

physical difficulties 282 

pitch 287 

principles 273 

quality 287 

quantity 287 

Rational or Ward method. .278 

reading defined... 281 

reading to pupils 282 

rhetorical exercises 298 

silent reading .285 

suggestions for beginners. .280 

synthetic method,. 274 

types 272 

value 272 

variety 299 



PAGE 

Reading, difficulties in 339 

Realism 434 

Renaissance 357 

Rote recitation 327-328 

Rou,«seau 

Emile's studies 435-436 

natural punishment 367 

s 

Scholasticism .....431 

School economy 23 

decoration, 25 

grounds -- 25 

heating 23 

light... - 23 

meaning, 23 

seating 25 

space _ 23 

ventilation... 23 

School Management 27 

adolescence 51 

affiliated interests 51 

answ^ers 41 

Batavia plan 36 

class teaching 33 

contemporary civilization 45 

- co-operation of parents 47 

devices in management 51 

discipline 47 

estimating a teacher. 27 

examinations 37' 

fatigue 51 

grading 33 

group teaching 34 

home lessons 38 

incentives 49 

individual teaching 36 

kinds of punishment 48 

moral education 42 

opening exercises 29 

personality of teacher... 43 

principles 27 

principle in character... 43 

principles of moral instruc- 
tion 46 

public opinion in schools 50 

punishment defined 48 



446 



PAGE 

qualifications of teachers.... 27 

questioning-, rules for 39 

reverence 43 

reviews 38 

self -government 44 

self-government of pupils. 50 

social membership 43 

spirit of school 43 

virtues 51 

Self-activity illustrated 369 

Self-realization 335 

Self-reporting- 378 

Sensation 12,317 

Seven Liberal Arts 435 

Social stimulus 384 

Spelling 81 

accuracy 81 

classification of words 90 

co-operation of pupils 98 

correlation and dictation ...,. 97 

defective teaching 83 

difficulties in pupils 82 

difficulties in subject-matter 81 

grouping by comparison 99 

grouping by contrast 99 

learning a lesson 87 

learning pronunciation 96 

methods , 85 ' 

oral and written 86 

pronunciation of syllables.. 98 

psychology of 81 

pupils' knowledge of mean- 
ing 96 

repetition 98 

rules 89 

suggestions to teacher 88 

teaching homonyms 92 

teaching homophones 91 

teaching meaning of words 93 

teaching synonyms 90 

two trials 393 

use of dictionary 96 

use of lists 85 

use of text-books 84 



word-building 96 

variety.. 100 

Spencer 367, 431 

Study 

home .322 

how to study 87, 96, 108, 109 

117, 161, 201, 203, 369, 379 

spelling... 393 

Suggestion 387 

Syllabication... 393 

Syllogism 383 

Symbolism 366 

Synonyms discriminated. 429-430 

T 

Teaching defined 356 

Things vs. words 380 

Types 

Chicago 407 

history 424-425 

New York City 355 

value — 355 

u 

Unitary analysis 402-403 

V 

Value 

phonics 393 

types 355 

Ventilation 23, 414 

Virtues 312 

Visualization 386 

w 

Walker quoted 364 

Ward method 278 

Will 

balky 306 

defined 11 

training 16-17, 307 

Writing 

a penalty 393 

too much 391 



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